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HORTICULTURE 


BY 


IRRIGATION; 


EY 

A.    E.    GIPSON, 

si 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  COLORADO  STATE   HORTICULTURAL  AND  FORESTRY 
ASSOCIATION,   AUTHOR  OF   "WHEN   AND   HOW   TO   IRRIGATE,"    ETC. 


DENVER,  COLO. ; 
THE  REPUBLICAN  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 


COPYRIGHTED,  1888,  BY 

A.  E.  GIPSON, 
GREELEY,  COLORADO. 


INDEX. 

Page. 

Preface 1 

A  Brief  Retrospect 3 

Introduction 5 

The  Duty  of  Water 9 

The  Best  System  of  Irrigation 15 

Sub-Irrigation 16 

"  The  New  Agriculture  " 19 

The  Asbestine  System 20 

Pipes,  Conduits.  Etn 24 

Reservoirs,  Wells,  Etc '.-•  ; 25 

Judge  James  Mar.-h  Clark 27 

The  Orchard f 30 

Laying  Out  and  Planting • 31 

Pruning 34 

Mulching       37 

Protecting  Tree  Trunks 39 

Wind-Breaks 40 

Heeling  In 40 

Dr.  Shaw  on  Fruit  Growing  in  Northern  Colorado 41 

The  Plum 45 

Apricot,  Peach  and  Nectarine 46 

Peach  and  Apricot  Culture,  by  C.  W.  Steele 47 

Cherries 48. 

The  Pear • • 49 

Quince,  Mulberry,  Etc 49 

Small  Fruits 50 

Strawberries 51 

Raspberries  and  Blackberries 52 

Grapes 54 

Currants  and  Gooseberries 59 

Cuttings • 60 

Cranberry  -. 61 

Dwarf  Cherry  and  Juneberry 62 

Table  Showing  Trees  and  Plants  Per  Acre 62 

Distances  for  Planting 63 

Weights  of  Trees 63 

Vegetable  Culture 64 

Asparagus 64 

Beets 65 

Turnip,  Parsnip  and  Carrot 65 

Cabbage 65 

Cauliflower 67 

Melons 67 

Onions 68 

Peas 68 

Radish- .69 


IV  INDEX. 

Vegetable  Culture— Continued.  Page. 

Squash 69 

Sweet  Potatoes 69 

String  Beans 70 

Sweet  Corn 70 

Tomatoes 70 

Rhubarb  or  Pie  Plant 72 

Horse-Radish 72 

Celery  Culture 73 

Vitality  of  Seeds .- 80 

The  Potato 81 

Insect  Enemies  and  Remedies 85 

Alfalfa 91 

Forestry 101 

Stock  for  General  Planting 109 

Ornamental  Plants  and  Shrubs 113 

Lawn  Mating  .    • 117 

Summary  of  Instructions  About  Irrigation .119 

The  Rain-Belt  Extension 122 

Budding  and  Grafting 124 

Effects  of  Cold  on  Fruit  Buds 125 

Correspondence 127 

Number  of  Seeds  to  the  Pound 139 

Vegetable  and  Grass  Seed  Table ..140 


INDEX   TO    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Machine  Used  in  Making  Cement  Pipe  for  Sub-Irrigation ...  22 

Judge  Clark 27 

Proper  and  Improper  Methods  of  Planting 33 

A  Well-formed,  Low-headed  Apple  Tree 35 

Manner  of  Protecting  Tree  Trunks 38 

Orchard  Irrigation • 44 

Plum  Tree  in  Bearing  at  Gardenside 45 

Well-Set  Strawberry  Plant 51 

Berry  Canes  Ready  for  Covering  with  Plow '   ' 53 

Bending  Canes  and  Roots 53 

Pruning  of  Grape  Vines §6 

Grape  Vine  Ready  for  Bearing 56 

Grape  Trellises 58 

Neat  Method  of  Garden  Irrigation 71 

Celery  Plant  and  Manner  of  Tying 76 

Banking  of  Celery  Plants 77 

Storing  Celery ~ 78 

Convenient  Potato  Cellar 84 

Alfalfa  or  Lucerne 91 

Manner  of  Using  the  Trochar 98 

Hydrangea  Grandiflora 113 


PREFACE. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  this  volume  is  not,  in  any 
sense,  intended  to  be  exhaustive,  nor  to  take  the  place  of  other  excellent 
publications  that  treat  the  subject  of  horticulture  in  detail.  The  aim  has 
rather  been  to  find  out  the  best  methods  of  orchard  and  garden  culture 
under  irrigation,  so  far  at  least  as  Colorado  experience  has  gone  ;  to  give 
practical  rules  so  far  as  possible  for  the  application  of  water  to  trees  and 
plants,  and  to  furnish  a  list  of  the  leading  varieties  best  adapted  to  this 
portion  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

The  numerous  applications  to  the  author  in  the  past  few  years  for  a 
practical  handbook  on  the  subject  in  question,  with  more  especial  refer- 
ence to  the  needs  of  this  portion  of  our  country,  has  prompted  the  publi- 
cation of  this  little  book. 

That  Colorado  and  adjoining  territory,  particularly  on  the  South  and 
West,  are  destined  to  become  large  producers  of  the  horticultural  staples, 
there  seems  little  doubt.  The  wide  diversity  of  soil,  climate  and  varia- 
tions of  altitude,  the  dryness  of  air  and  almost  perpetual  sunshine  from 
the  skies,  together  with  reasonable  assurance  of  an  ample  water  supply, 
all  combine  to  make  success  possible  in  many  directions.  Hence,  there  is 
scope  and  hope  for  much  that  must  necessarily  be  denied  to  other  portions 
of  our  land,  that  do  not  possess  these  natural  advantages  and  distinctive 
conditions. 

While  this  is  true,  it  should  be  remembered  that  we  have  scarcely 
more  than  entered  the  experimental  period  in  horticultural  development. 
The  effect  of  altitude  and  constant  sunshine  on  fruit  stock,  the  influence  of 
irrigation  on  soils  as  well  as  fruits,  the  "duty"  of  water,  the  best  means 
of  guarding  against  early  and  late  frosts,  and  from  the  rapid  transitions 
in  some  districts  from  zero  weather  to  the  temperature  of  Spring ;  these 
1 


2  HORTICULTURE   BY    IRRIGATION. 

and  other  complicated  problems  in  pomology,  must  be  encountered.  For 
these  reasons  it  should  not  be  surprising  if  the  history  of  fruit  growing  in 
much  of  the  West  and  Northwest  repeats  itself  here,  in  a  measure.  That 
the  same  faith,  perseverance  and  intrepidity,  which  led  men  to  invade 
these  Great  Plains  and  subdue  them,  that  prompted  the  pioneers  in  horti- 
culture of  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  to  transport  the  first  plantings  a  thous- 
and miles  by  ox  and  mule  teams  to  the  New  West,  and  that  has  led  others 
in  more  recent  times  to  make  great  sacrifices  in  the  same  direction — that 
indomitable  energy  and  persistence  will  triumph,  there  is  little  room  for 
doubt.  Let  us  be  patient  therefore  and  strive  for  the  best  possible  results 
in  the  work  before  us.  In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  I  have  been 
aided  not  only  by  those  who'have  kindly  contributed  to  its  pages,  but  by 
suggestions  from  leading  horticulturists  of  different  parts  of  this  State,  to 
each  and  all  of  whom  I  desire  to  tender  thanks.  Especially  do  I  acknowl- 
edge indebtedness  for  favors  shown,  to  Professor  James  Cassidy,  instructor 
in  botany  and  horticulture  at  the  Colorado  State  Agricultural  College. 

A.  E.  G. 
GREELEY  NURSERIES  AND  GARDENSIDE 

FRUIT  FARM, 
Greeley,  Colo.,  February,  1888. 


A  BRIEF  RETROSPECT. 

The  marvelous  development  of  the  Great  West  has  no  parallel  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  Little  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  fully 
half  of  our  continent  was  comparatively  unknown  and  was  associated  with 
all  that  was  to  be  dreaded  in  the  most  dismal  features  of  desert  life.  A 
vast  region  of  country  stretching  through  twenty  degrees  of  longitude 
and  as  many  of  latitude,  with  a  mighty  mountain  range  as  its  backbone, 
was,  less  than  fifty  years  ago,  supposed  to  be  a  barren  and  uninhabitable 
waste.  The  bugbear  in  an  overland  trip  to  the  Pacific  Slope  was  the 
crossing  of  the  "Treeless  Sand  Plains"  that  interposed  their  parched  and 
cheerless  expanses  for  nearly  a  thousand  miles.  Even  the  wisest  states- 
men of  that  time  saw  in  all  this  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  build- 
ing of  a  line  of  continental  railway. 

The  gallant  Fremont,  who  came  this  way  at  an  early  day,  reported 
officially,  "that  all  west  of  the  Missouri  Eiver  was  barren  desert,  unpro- 
ductive, rainless  and  treeless." 

Many  of  to-day,  not  far  advanced  in  years,  can  recall  the  wild,  wierd 
pictures  of  the  "wind  swept  solitude,"  of  a  sand  storm  on  the  "Great 
American  Desert,"  and  perhaps  of  the  complete  destruction  of  some  luck- 
less caravan.  To  my  own  mind  as  these  lines  are  written,  come  vividly 
the  sketches  of  the  awful  doom  that  often  overtook  those  who  ventured 
too  far  beyond  the  borders  of  civilization.  Poisonous  simoons  were  writ- 
ten about,  and  the  picture  was  not  complete  without  reference  to  those 
who  had  been  lured  to  destruction  by  the  cruel  deception  of  the  fatal 
mirage.  The  hero  of  those  days  was  he  who  had  penetrated  this  strange 
land  and  had  been  permitted  to  return  safely  to  the  "Father  of  Waters." 
Now  as  one  is  hurried  by  the  iron  horse  over  any  one  of  the  half-dozen 
great  railways  that  span  this  same  wonderful  country,  what  a  transforma- 
tion is  opened  to  view.  Instead  of  the  grim  and  hideous  visions  of  boy- 
hood days,  the  desert  has  blossomed  and  a  land  is  seen  rich  in  verdure, 
dotted  with  cities,  villages  and  beautiful  homes  and  teeming  with  the 
evidences  of  a  vigorous  civilization.  Within  little  more  than  a  score  of 
years  the  practical  men  in  horticulture  have  made  glad  the  waste  places 


4  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

by  the  planting  within  the  borders  of  two  great  States  alone  (Kansas  and 
Nebraska)  fully  six  hundred  million  trees. 

Surely  the  chaos  of  a  mighty  world  is  rounding  into  form  !  Long- 
lived  and  prosperous  be  the  lot  of  those  who  have  laid  the  foundations, 
and  who  are  developing  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  this  wonderful 
domain. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Artificial  irrigation  is  essentially  a  part  of  the  agriculture  of  nearly 
half  of  our  American  continent.  -The  subject  of  the  right  distribution 
and  conservation  of  moisture  is  one  that  is  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
leading  cultivators  throughout  the  entire  land.  Each  recurring  season  of 
drouth  and  floods,  with  its  recoi'd  of  failures  and  disasters,  is  causing 
widespread  discussion  of  the  best  means  of  arresting  the  gigantic  waste 
from  these  sources. 

The  problem  is  not  only  among  the  first  in  economic  importance,  but 
involves  as  well  a  movement  towards  an  improved  and  scientific  agricul- 
ture. Thoughtful  tillers  of  the  soil  are  beginning  to  realize  that  the 
waters  have  "run  riot"  too  long,  and  that  possibly  the  "settled  policy"  of 
the  last  half  century,  which  has  been  directed  towards  relieving  both 
earth  and  air  from  moisture,  either  by  drainage  or  deforesting,  should  be 
reversed. 

Prominent  agricultural  writers,  almost  to  a  man,  are  to-day  calling  a 
halt,  and  urging  that  steps  be  at  once  taken  to  not  only  arrest  the  "  waste 
of  waters,"  but  to  conserve  them  as  well,  for  use  in  times  of  need.  Not 
alone  this.  The  conspicuous  and  manifest  advantage  to  every  grower  of 
crops  of  a  certain  and  ample  water  supply,  is  a  most  persuasive  and  pow- 
erful argument  in  favor  of  artificial  irrigation  in  some  form. 

Mr.  A.  N.  Cole  heads  his  valuable  work  on  "his  system"  of  sub-irri- 
gation with  the  double  title :  "The  New  Agriculture ;  or  the  Waters  Led 
Captive,"  and  declares  that  "  the  world  seems  to  have  gone  stark  mad  in 
efforts  to  dry  up  and  carry  off  the  waters." 

He  would  conserve  the  moisture  and  shows  marvelous  results  from 
his  new  method.  "Sub-irrigate  our  States  and  Territories,"  says  Mr. 
Cole,  "and  these  would  feed  all  the  populations  of  the  world.  The  water 
wasted  annually,  were  it  run  through  the  soils  as  I  am  doing,  would  in 
from  five  to  ten  years  suffice  to  increase  the  wealth  of  the  country  to  a 
degree  so  manifold,  I  dare  not  so  much  as  venture  an  opinion  in  estimate." 

Mr.  Henry  Stewart,  in  his  able  treatise  on  irrigation  says:  "The 
supply  of  water  then  becomes  the  measure  of  the  fertility  of  our  soil,  and 


O  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

our  climate,  subject  to  torrid  drouths  in  the  midst  of  the  growing 
season,  is  the  obstacle  to  success  which  meets  the  farmer,  rather  than  the 
impoverished  soil — a  condition  indeed  mainly  due  to  the  poverty  of 
water." 

Mr.  Hinton,  in  his  recent  compilation  of  "Irrigation  in  the  United 
States,"  declares  it  the  opinion  of  those  qualified  to  form  a  judgment  that 
irrigation  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  and  has  given  no  more  than  a  promise  of 
what  it  is  destined  to  achieve.  "  Our  own  country,"  says  he,  "possessing 
vaster  domains  than  any  nation  in  the  world,  and  of  incomparable  value, 
has  only  to  enter  upon  her  own  possessions,  and  by  trenching  her  moun- 
tain sides,  beget  reservoirs  as  enduring  as  the  foundations  of  the  earth." 

Mr.  Johnson,  of  Illinois,  who  is  eminent  as  a  writer  on  farm  topics, 
asserts  it  something  more  than  reasonably  certain  that  irrigation  on  a 
scale  not  now  dreamed  of  as  possible,  will  be  adopted  within  a  century 
for  the  prairies  of  Illinois. 

Orange  Judd,  and  a  score  of  other  writers  of  equal  note,  are  likewise 
enthusiastic  converts  to  the  benefits  resulting  from  the  artificial  applica- 
tion of  water  to  land.  In  fact  the  drift  of  public  sentiment  has  become 
so  marked  in  this  direction  within  the  past  few  years  as  to  justify  the 
prediction  of  a  revolution  in  the  present  methods  of  crop  culture. 

Whatever  forecast  may  be  warranted  with  reference  to  results  on 
general  agriculture,  will  apply  particularly  to  fruit  and  garden  culture. 
While  it  would  be  an  exaggeraiion  to  assert  that  there  are  no  limits  to 
the  possibilities  of  horticulture  under  an  ample  system  of  irrigation,  it  is 
certainly  safe  to  say  that  these  limits  have  not  yet  been  reached. 

" Intense  culture"  will  be  synonymous,  in  the  future,  with  a  certain 
and  uniform  supply  of  moisture. 

Mr.  Cole,  in  the  "  New  Agriculture,"  reports  approximate  yields  to 
the  acre  under  his  system,  of  1,200  bushels  of  Early  Rose  potatoes;  grapes 
in  proportion  of  five  to  one  as  against  the  old  method  ;  300  to  400  bushels 
of  strawberries  of  extraordinary  size  and  flavor,  and  so  on.  California 
vineyardists  give  returns  of  yields,  often  as  four  or  five  to  one,  and  enor- 
mous production  of  strawberries.  Colorado  has  produced  upwards  of 
1,100  bushels  of  onions  to  the  acre  (field  culture).  Colorado  also  claims 
the  prize  beet,  a  fifteen-pound  head  of  celery,  and  a  yield  of  grapes  from 
small  plots  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  tons  to  the  acre. 

Similar  instances  could  be  cited  almost  indefinitely,  and  while  these 
place  judicious  irrigation  at  great  advantage,  it  should  be  understood  that 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

such  results  are  from  favorable  conditions  and  good  management.  Irriga- 
tion may  be  easily  overdone  and  disastrous  failures  follow.  Mr.  Stewart 
is  right  when  he  says  that  "  to  irrigate  economically  and  successfully  is 
a  business  that  requires  technical  knowledge  and  skill,  and  belongs  to  a 
highly  advanced  condition  of  agriculture."  Some  years  ago  we  wrote 
the  following,  which  experience  since  has  fully  confirmed:  "The  suc- 
cessful cultivator  must  know  how  and  when  to  apply  water  to  his  crops. 
To  the  grower  of  fruits  the  ability  to  command  this  element  when  needed 
is  of  manifest  advantage.  That  the  yield  may  be  largely  increased  by  the 
judicious  application  of  water,  there  is  little  doubt.  That  the  fruit  may 
also  be  increased  in  size  and  made  more  attractive,  is  equally  certain.  At 
the  same  time  judgment  is  required  for  the  best  results.  Indeed,  positive 
harm  may  be  done  by  untimely  irrigation ;  harm  not  only  to  the  tree  and 
plant,  but  to  the  land  as  well.  Incessant  watering  without  regard  to  the 
condition  of  the  soil  or  the  needs  of  the  plant  will  often  force  a  growth  of 
wood  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit  product  and  fruit  flavor.  It  may  like- 
wise cause  a  growth  to  be  made  which  the  succeeding  winter  finds  imma- 
ture and  unable  to  withstand  the  tests.  This  will  almost  certainly  be  the 
result  with  any  tree  or  plant  that  has  a  tendency  to  make  a  strong  or 
succulent  growth.  I  have  known  great  injury  to  result  from  this 
cause  alone.  I  have  also  known  the  quality  of  small  fruits,  particu- 
larly strawberries,  to  be  seriously  impaired  by  too  frequent  watering. 
This  by  way  of  illustrating  the  point  that  there  is  danger  in  careless  irri- 
gation. The  condition  of  the  soil  and  needs  of  whatever  is  growing  on  it 
should  be  studied.  My  own  view  is  that  too  much  water  is  used  by  a 
majority  of  irrigators  in  the  orchard  and  garden,  and  that  more  harm 
results  from  a  too  free  use  of  it  than  from  too  little.  In  a  word,  every- 
thing beyond  a  legitimate  use  is  an  abuse,  and  this  will  be  better  under- 
stood in  a  few  years  than  it  is  aow." 

But,  aside  from  definite  pecuniary  results,  certain  general  propositions 
may  be  stated  with  reference  to  irrigation,  of  which  the  limits  of  this 
work  will  prevent  a  discussion.  Experience  has  abundantly  demonstrated 
that  water,  properly  applied,  is  beneficial,  both  to  soil  and  to  plant  growth  ; 
that,  from  a  sanitary  standpoint,  it  acts  as  a  purifier,  and  is  injurious  only 
when  allowed  to  stagnate  either  on  or  below  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  become  the  receptacle  for  unwholesome  accumulations ;  that  it  is  a 
solvent  of  vegetable  plant  food,  and  often,  although  not  always,  acts  as  a 
powerful  fertilizer,  as  modern  experience,  in  widely  separated  regions,  is 


HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

demonstrating.*  That  it  almost  uniformly,  when  distributed  to  any 
extent,  increases  the  humidity  of  the  climate ;  that  it  avoids  the  occurrence 
of  the  much  dreaded  drouth,  with  its  accompanying  record  of  failures, 
discouragements  and  often  appalling  consequences ;  and,  finally,  that 
it  makes  possible  a  condition  of  agriculture  so  manifestly  in  advance  of 
the  present  status  of  things,  that  words  seem  inadequate  to  express  these 
possibilities. 


*NOTK. — A  very  probable  effect  ot  irrigation  on  a  large  scale  "  would  be  an 
increase  of  precipitation  in  the  region  watered.  Hitherto,  scientific  observation  has 
recorded  no  such  increase,  but,  in  a  question  of  so  purely  a  local  character,  we  must 
ascribe  very  great  importance  to  a  consideration  which  has  frequently  been  over- 
looked by  meteorologists ;  namely,  that  vapors  exhaled  in  one  district  may  probably 
be  condensed  and  precipitated  in  another,  very  distant  from  their  source.  If,  then, 
it  were  proved  that  an  extension  ot  irrigated  soil  was  not  followed  by  an  increase  of 
rain-fall  in  the  same  territory,  the  probability  that  the  precipitation  was  augmented 
somewhere  would  not  be  in  the  least  diminished."  (Man  and  Nature.  Page  463.) 
It  is  asserted  that  rain-fall  on  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  has  increased  since  the  opening 
of  that  great  water  thoroughfare,  and  has  enlarged  the  evaporable  surface  of  the 
country.  Some  leading  cultivators  of  California  assert  positively  that  an  increase 
of  rain-fall  has  followed  extended  irrigation  in  portions  of  that  State.  While  this 
belief  is  gaining  ground,  perhaps,  in  other  sections  of  the  country,  the  fact  should 
be  kept  in  mind  that  questions  of  this  character,  that  involve  changes  of  climate, 
can  only  be  determined  by  tests  extending  through  a  series  of  years. 


THE    DUTY  OF  WATER. 


It  is  safe  to  say  that,  at  the  present  time,  there  is  absolutely  no 
standard  or  basis  for  accurately  estimating  the  "duty  of  water."  So  many 
conditions  are  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  determining  how  much 
water  may  or  may  not  be  needed  for  any  given  crop,  and  so  little  thought 
has,  until  quite  recently,  been  devoted  to  the  matter  of  economizing  water, 
that  little  data  that  is  at  all  reliable  can  be  given.  Broad  generalization, 
bordering  closely  on  to  "guess  work,"  has  been  the  rule.  That  there  are 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  arriving  at  accurate  conclusions  in  these  investi- 
gations, must  be  seen  at  a  glance.  Local  conditions,  character  of  the  soils, 
slope  of  the  land,  cultivation,  humidity,  evaporation,  precipitation,  drain- 
age and  capillary  action,  are  so  widely  at  variance  in  different  localities, 
that  there  is  small  hope  of  getting  any  formula  that  will  admit  of  extended 
application.  Then,  too,  the  demands  of  plant  life  are  variable. 

As  no  two  trees  are  precisely  alike,  so  it  follows  that  their  require- 
ments may  not  be  the  same  in  all  respects.  Again,  the  products  of  different 
latitudes,  even  of  the  same  varieties,  are  influenced  by  local  surroundings. 
The  plant  that  requires  a  gallon  of  water  a  day  in  one  locality  might 
demand  more  or  less  in  another.  The  tree  that  would  drink  up  five 
hundred  gallons  of  water  per  day  in  Colorado,  might  be  easily  satisfied 
with  half  that  quantity  in  Illinois. 

It  would  be  quite  as  logical  to  say  that  the  dweller  in  the  "  Land  of  the 
midnight  sun  "  should  have  the  same  food  regimen  as  the  dusky  being  on 
the  burning  sands  of  the  equator,  as  to  assert  that  products  of  the  vegetable 
life  should  have  the  same  treatment  the  world  over.  The  best,  then,  that 
can  be  done  in  efforts  to  formulate  conclusions  on  the  duty  of  water,  is  to 
say  that,  given  certain  specified  conditions,  approximate  requirements 
would  be  the  same. 

The  author  of  "Man  and  Nature"  says  that,  "as  near  as  can  be 
ascertained,  the  amount  of  water  applied  to  irrigated  lands  is  scarcely 
anywhere  less  than  the  total  precipitation  during  the  season  of  vegetable 
growth,  and  in  general  it  much  exceeds  that  quantity." 


IO  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

This  is  undoubtedly  true,  and  yet  it  offers  no  solution  of  the  problem 
of  what  the  actual  duty  of  water  is.  The  amount  of  water  uted,  and  what 
is  really  needed,  are  two  very  different  things.  The  systems  or  facilities 
employed  for  distribution  cut  an  important  figure.  Instances  are  given 
in  California  where  a  flow  of  one  cubic  foot  per  second  has  supplied  9,000 
acres,  while  in  Colorado  the  average  duty  is  estimated  at  50  acres  for  the 
same  flow. 

A  Massachusetts  man  estimates  that  108  tons  of  water  are  needed  per 
acre,  every  five  days,  in  a  dry  period  for  irrigating  the  garden  lands  of 
that  section,  and  a  fruit  grower  of  Wisconsin,  who  waters  his  fruits  by 
means  of  wind-mill  and  tank,  reports  that  it  takes  30,000  gallons  to  a 
watering  to  satisfy  his  acre  of  strawberry  plants.  Under  a  system  of  sub- 
irrigation,  the  State  Engineer  of  California  reported  that  he  saw  three 
acres  of  young  trees  thoroughly  irrigated,  in  half  an  hour,  with  about  four 
hundred  cubic  feet  of  water,  or  less  that  3,000  gallons.  The  "duty  "  then, 
under  the  flooding  process,  is  vastly  less  than  under  the  furrow  system, 
and  by  an  improved  system  of  sub-irrigation,  it  is  as  a  hundred  to  one  in 
favor  of  the  latter.  These  are  suggestive  figures,  and  some  day  will  be 
looked  into  when  the  waters  from  our  streams  become  too  valuable  to 
waste.  It  will  be  a  forcible  reminder  of  the  old  adage  that  "economy  is 
wealth."  Still,  even  under  frugal  management,  the  demands  of  vegetable 
life  are  comparatively  large.* 

Few  people  realize  the  amount  of  moisture  utilized  and  required  by 
growing  plants  and  vegetation.  Dr.  Gilbert  has  stated  that  the  amount 
of  water  given  off  by  plants  during  growth  might  be  approximately  esti- 
timated  as  equal  to  a  depth  of  three  inches  of  rain  for  every  ton  of  dry 
substance  grown.  Another  eminent  authority  found  that  most  plants 
exhaled  during  the  four  or  five  months  of  their  growth,  more  than  two 
hundred  times  their  dry  weight  of  water,  drawn  up  from  the  soil  in  which 
they  grew. 

Prof.  Buirell,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  says,  in  a  recent  report, 
that  "the  water  requirements  of  a  tree,  in  full  leaf,  in  warm,  sunshiny 
weather,  are  astonishingly  great.  A  good  sized  apple  tree,  having  25,000 
square  feet  of  evaporating  surface — by  no  means  a  large  estimate — will 
give  off  31,250  ounces  of  water  per  day.  This  is  substantially  250  gallons ; 

*NOTE.— The  experiments  now  being  made  at  the  Colorado  State  Agricultural 
College,  to  determine  the  duty  of  water  on  various  crops,  will  be  watched  with 
interest. 


THE    DUTY   OF    WATER.  I  I 

an  amazing  amount,  yet  far  less  than  has  sometimes  been  calculated. 
If  so  much  is  given  up  to  the  air  through  the  leaves,  an  equal  amount 
must  be  absorbed  from  the  soil  by  the  roots — the  only  way  that  plants  of 
the  kind  under  discussion  obtain  the  water  required  by  them." 

Mr.  Cole,  author  of  the  "  New  Agriculture,"  found  that  a  single  hill  of 
cucumbers  would  drink  a  half  a  barrel  of  water  in  three  days  time,  and, 
having  done  so,  would  begin  to  languish  for  want  of  moisture,  and,  failing 
to  secure  it,  die  in  a  week. 

It  is  also  known  that  crops  growing  on  manured  land  evaporate  more 
water  than  on  the  same  land  unmanured.  Likewise  land  growing  a  heavy 
crop  of  barley  was  shown  by  Messrs.  Laws  and  Gilbert  to  have  evaporated 
nine  inches,  or  1,800  tons  of  water  more  than  bare  land  lying  alongside. 
It  will  be  seen  then  that  the  necessities  of  plant  life,  with  respect  to  moisture, 
is  a  matter  that  is  influenced  or  governed  more  or  less  by  surroundings  and 
by  local  conditions. 

Another  important  point  that  enters  largely  into  a  proper  determin- 
ation of  the  "duty"  of  water  is  the  manner  of  cultivation  practiced  on 
any  given  crop.  The  plow  and  the  cultivator  are  most  effective  conser- 
vors  of  moisture.  Hence,  crops  are  saved  by  frequent  and  thorough 
stirrings  of  the  soil,  when  otherwise  they  would  either  perish  or  fail  to 
mature.  This  fact  is  often  noticed  in  the  cultivation  of  corn.  When 
parched  and  wilted  during  a  season  of  excessive  drouth,  I  have  seen  this 
crop  fully  restored  by  a  timely  use  of  the  cultivator.  Among  garden 
crops,  the  beet  and  squash  are  conspicuous  examples  of  the  efficacy  of 
good  cultivation  as  a  diffuser  of  moisture. 

So  important  is  this  item  of  tillage  to  the  best  results  on  the  farm  or 
the  garden,  that  with  good  soil,  deep  plowing,  and  thorough  culture,  crops 
may  often  be  assured  with  little  or  no  surface  irrigation.  Therefore,  it 
should  be  said  that  no  discussion,  or  mathematical  calculation  of  the 
"duty  of  water,"  is  accurate  or  logical  that  ignores  the  influence  of  these 
local  conditions. 

In  a  report  of  the  Farmers'  Alliance,  of  Fort  Collins,  under  date  of 
January  21st,  1888,  the  recommendation  was  made  that  land  should  be 
plowed  deep  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  to  allow  the  frost  and  snow  to  have 
full  action  on  the  upturned  soil.  "It  was  also  demonstrated"  says  the 
report,  "  that  one  irrigation  on  land  thai  has  been  plowed  deep  was  as  good  as 
three  irrigations  on  shallow  plowed  ground."  We  italicize  this  because  it 
goes  to  confirm  a  position  for  which  we  have  for  years  contended.  "  Deep 


12  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

and  thorough  disintegration  of  the  soil,"  says  Professor  Cassiday,  of  our 
Colorado  Agricultural  College,  "will  accomplish  the  first  step  in  the 
retention  in  the  soil  of  the  moisture  for  the  sustenance  of  flagging  vegeta- 
tion. Cultivation,  too,  checks  evaporation,  and  hence  currently  lessens 
the  deposit  of  alkali  on  the  surface.  High  tilth  of  the  soil  supplements 
irrigation.  This,  with  good  under-drainage  and  the  successful  application 
of  water  to  plants  in  the  free  soil,  and  a  judicious  selection  of  varieties, 
may  be  said  to  be  the  foundation  of  successful  fruit  culture  in  this  State." 

These  remarks  of  Professor  Cassiday  need  not  be  limited  to  Colorado. 
They  are  of  universal  application ;  and  while  the  people  of  the  West  are 
to-day  petitioning  Congress  for  a  grand  system  of  surface  reservoirs  for 
the  Great  Plains,  the  importance  of  which  is  too  manifest  to  need  dis- 
cussion, let  them  supplement  this  by  constructing  a  still  grander  system 
of  underground  reservoirs,  by  plow  and  trench,  to  hold  like  a  sponge  the 
water  which  falls  or  flows  upon  them,  to  be  returned  to  the  growing  crops 
as  their  needs  demand. 

From  an  investigation  of  results  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  CDuntry 
where  irrigation  is  practiced,  with  few  exceptions,  the  verdict  is  quite 
unanimous  that  "the  duty  of  water"  is  annually  increasing.  In  fact,  so 
uniform  is  this  testimony  that  Mr.  Dakin,  whose  able  report  has  been  sev- 
eral times  quoted  from,  singles  out  as  an  apparent  exception  to  the  rule 
"  Colorado  alone,  in  situations  like  that  of  Greeley ;  upon  a  deep,  porous 
soil,  with  a  rapid  fall  and  quick  drainage."  Here  he  says  as  much  water 
is  said  to  be  used  now  as  was  required  some  twelve  years  ago.  "  Every- 
where else  the  verdict  of  experience  is  that  water  goes  farther  every 
year."  But  this  statement  is  qualified  by  another  which  he  terms  "an  all 
important  principle,  as  to  which  there  is  no  question,  and  which  is  testi- 
fied too  on  every  hand — that  the  more  thoroughly  the  soil  is  cultivated, 
the  less  water  it  demands." 

The  remark  is  made  here  in  passing  that  this  is  strong  support  of  the 
proposition  already  advanced,  that  no  attempt  to  determine  the  actual 
duty  of  water  will  be  very  satisfactory  that  does  not  take  into  considera- 
tion the  "duty  of  cultivation." 

Professor  Cassiday  makes  a  good  point  when  he  says  that  "the  vary- 
ing efficiency  of  the  duty  of  water  in  Colorado,  as  compared  with 
California  and  other  countries,  is  largely  due  to  our  elevation,  causing 
greater  evaporation  of  both  plant  and  soil."  But  whatever  may  be  the 
difference,  comparatively  speaking,  bet\veen  Colorado  and  other  States 


THE    DUTY    OF    WATER.  13 

and  Territories  in  climatic  influences,  we  feel  warranted  in  the  assertion 
that  this  State  is  no  exception  to  the  rule  of  the  increased  duty  of  water, 
excepting  possibly  in  degree.  In  the  third  biennial  report  of  State 
Engineer  Nettleton,  pages  59  and  60  (referring  specially  to  the  Cache  la 
Poudre  Kiver,  which  waters  Greeley  and  lands  contiguous),  he  says: 
"  The  duty  for  the  present  season  (1886)  was  about  three  times  as  large  as 
the  estimate  heretofore  generally  accepted."  Total  number  of  acres 
under  cultivation  in  this  district  was  125,000,  and  the  average  duty  for 
the  months  of  May,  June,  July  and  August  for  this  year  of  each  cubic  foot 
per  second  was  193  acres.  Mr.  Nettleton  then  proceeds  to  make  the  fol- 
lowing general  statement :  "  It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience,  how- 
ever, that  the  duty  of  water  has  increased  greatly  of  late  years.  The 
reasons  for  this  will  be  discussed  in  another  part  of  the  report.*  That 
this  duty  is  not  exceptionally  great  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  Utah 
under  similar  climatic  conditions,  where  a  duty  of  200  acres  to  the  cubic 
foot  per  second  is  not  unusual,  while  in  California  a  much  higher  duty  is 
attained.  What  has  been  accomplished 

on  this  river  (the  Cache  la  Poudre)  in  the  way  of  records  on  increasing 
the  duty  of  water,  and  by  reducing  the  work  of  dividing  waters  to  a  sys- 
tem, which  commends  itself  to  all,  can  be  done  on  other  streams  and  in 
other  water  districts." 

That  seepage  cuts  an  important  figure  in  estimating  the  duty  of 
water  will  be  seen  by  experiments  made  by  Engineer  Nettleton.  In  one 
instance,  "starting  with  a  flow  of  127,609  cubic  feet  per  second  in  the 
canon,  before  any  water  was  drawn  into  canals,  the  volume  at  the  lower 
point,  after  supplying  fifteen  canals,  had  increased  to  214,508  cubic  feet 
per  second ;  showing  an  addition  of  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  original 
amount,  to  supply  canals  further  down  the  valley." 

Another  experiment  on  the  same  river  (Cache  la  Poudre)  disclosed 
the  fact  that  more  water  passes  through  the  canon  during  one  day  in  the 
hight  of  flood  season  than  there  does  during  a  month  in  the  fall.  This 
test  applies  rather  to  the  matter  of  storage,  and  shows  the  possibility  of 
doubling  the  capacity  of  a  stream,  or  greatly  enlarging  it  by  ample  stor- 
age facilities. 

*  Colonel  Nettleton  in  this  reference  accounts  for  the  increased  duty  of  water 
mainly  for  the  reason  of  the  better  knowledge  from  year  to  year  of  how  and  when 
to  apply  water,  and  to  the  control  the  State  has  taken  in  the  distribution  of  the 
waters,  and  in  the  manner  of  defining  appropriations.  In  another  portion  of  the 
report  attention  is  called  to  the  importance  of  seepage  as  a  factor  in  the  distribution 
of  moisture. 


14  HORTICULTURE    BY"  IRRIGATION. 

A  summary  of  all  this  discussion,  then,  shows  that  while  water  may 
be  made  to  do  increased  duty  in  many  ways,  it  also  shows  the  extreme 
difficulty  of  arriving  at  anything  like  accurate  conclusions,  in  the  absence 
of  a  knowledge  of  atmospheric  conditions  and  the  numerous  local  causes 
or  surroundings,  that  may  so  directly  influence  results. 


THE  BEST  SYSTEM  OF  IRRIGATION. 

to 

Irrigation  is  by  no  means  a  modern  method  of  applying  water  to 
land.  A  writer  on  the  subject  tells  us  that  ''in  the  regions  regarded  by 
general  tradition  as  the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  we  find  traces  of  canals 
evidently  constructed  for  this  purpose  at  a  period  long  preceding  the  ages 
of  which  we  have  any  written  memorials.  There  are  in  ancient  Armenia 
extensive  districts  which  were  already  abandoned  to  desolation  at  the 
earliest  historical  epoch,  but  which  in  a  yet  remoter  antiquity  had  been 
irrigated  by  a  complicated  and  highly  artificial  system  of  canals,  the 
lines  of  which  can  still  be  followed  ;  and  there  are  in  all  the  highlands, 
where  the  sources  of  the  Uphrates  rise,  in  Persia,  in  Egypt,  in  India  and 
in  China,  works  of  this  sort  which  must  have  been  in  existence  before 
man  had  begun  to  record  his  own  annals."  So  says  the  author  of  "  Man 
and  Nature."  Various  methods  have  been  employed  for  artificially 
applying  water  to  land,  some  of  which  appear  very  primitive  and  labori- 
ous to  us  of  to-day.  We  read  of  the  "  creaking  of  the  water  wheels " 
during  the  whole  night  on  the  Nile  in  irrigating  season,  "  while  the 
poorer  cultivators  unceasingly  ply  the  simple  shadoof,  or  backet  and 
sweep,  laboriously  raising  the  water  from  trough  to  trough  by  as  many  as 
six  or  seven  stages,  when  the  river  is  low.  Instances  of  other  rude  meth- 
ods are  known,  such  as  carrying  water  by  means  of  pots  and  distributing 
it  on  plats  of  ground." 

These  ''systems"  would  not  be  calculated  to  awaken  great  enthusiasm 
at  the  present  time  in  the  "  noble  art  of  irrigation "  if  they  had  to  be 
adopted  from  necessity.  But  the  plans  now  in  use  in  the  United  States 
are  mostly  copied  or  borrowed  from  the  improved  methods  of  the  Old 
World.  Practically,  the  history  of  irrigation  in  the  United  States,  as 
Commissioner  Coleman^says,  "  begins  with  the  construction  of  the  Pacific 
railroads."  But  even  with  thousands  of  miles  of  canals,  and  rapid 
development  within  this  brief  period,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  we  have 
scarcely  made  a  beginning.  Hence  it  is  too  early  to  assert  what  may  yet 
be  accomplished,  or  what  may  prove  the  "  best "  system  of  irrigation. 


1 6  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

This  much,  however,  should  be  recognized :  that  there  is  a  vast  differ- 
ence between  a  system  of  distributing  water  and  that  of  rightly  applying 
it  to  land.  For  example,  there  might  be  perfect  harmony  of  views  upon 
the  proposition  that  the  best  arrangement  for  conveying  water  would  be 
that  which  would  accomplish  the  work  most  expeditiously  and  neatly, 
with  the  least  loss  from  any  cause,  either  from  seepage,  evaporation  or 
the»like,  and  at  a  cost  consistent  with  a  judicious  expenditure  of  money; 
and  yet  it  would  not  follow  that  there  must  be  the  same  agreement  as  to 
the  proper  manner  of  applying  this  water  to  the  land.  There  is  clearly  a 
wide  difference  here,  which  will  be  better  understood  in  the  future  than  it 
is  now.  The  one  simply  involves  the  point  as  to  what  would  be  the  most 
economic  expenditure  of  money,  all  things  considered.  The  other  fea- 
ture goes  farther  and  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  needs  of*  the  soil  and 
of  the  crops  growing  or  to  be  grown  thereon.  It  also  demands  an  under- 
standing of  the  effect  of  using  water  in  various  ways,  whether  by 
flooding,  furrow  irrigation  or  by  some  form  of  sub-irrigation.  In  other 
words,  it  means  reducing  the  matter  to  a  scientific  basis. 

This  will  be  the  system  of  the  future. 

As  to  the  merits  of  the  various  methods  of  irrigation,  from  the 
knowledge  I  have  been  able  to  obtain,  both  from  study,  observation  and 
practical  experience,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  in  favor  of  some  form 
of  sub-irrigation,  for  most  horticultural  products.  To  my  mind  the 
evidence  is  cumulative  and  most  abundant,  that  this  way  of  using  water  is 
not  only  correct  in  principle,  but  is  the  most  economic,  effective  and  whole- 
some. The  prime  aim,  under  any  system  of  cultivation,  or  irrigation, 
should  be  to  stimulate  and  induce  "  capillary  action  "  in  every  possible  way. 

It  is  a  fact  conceded  by  every  observing  cultivator  of  the  soil,  that 
the  finest  and  best  crops  and  most  satisfactory  results  in  every  way  are 
obtained  from  those  lands  where  there  is  free,  constant  and  uniform 
moisture  diffused  from  below.  Soils  differ  with  respect  to  the  workings 
of  capillary  attraction,  but  it  is  more  or  less  potent  in  all  land. 

Three  years  since  Hon.  Alfred  Deakin,  M.  P.,  chairman  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  the  water  supply  of  Australia,  made  an  able  and  compre- 
hensive report  on  American  irrigation,  in  which  he  refers  to  the  peculiar 
property  possessed  by  many  soils  (capillary  attraction)  as  forming  a  most 
important  factor  in  all  calculations  as  to  the  limits  of  irrigation.  Mention 
is  made  of  the  fact  that  in  California  fas  shown  by  experiments)  water 
rises  rapidly  in  coarse,  sandy  soils,  but  only  to  a  moderate  hight ;  while  in 


THE    BEST    SYSTEM    OF    IRRIGATION.  I/ 

finer  soils,  whether  in  clay  or  of  silty  formation,  the  rise  is  slower,  but 
higher.  So  that  in  a  few  weeks  or  months,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  water 
attains  twice  or  thrice  the  hight  that  it  climbs  in  the  former.  He  con- 
cludes, upon  this  point,  that  ?  "  consideration  of  these  results  points  to 
the  superior  value,  in  suitable  soils,  of  sub-irrigation,  or  irrigation  by 
seepage  from  below,  over  all  methods  of  surface  application,  because  it  is 
thus  possible  to  avoid  caking  the  soil  and  loss  by  evaporation." 

It  may  be  observed  in  this  connection,  and  has  been  already  referred 
to,  that  broad  and  deep  disintegration  of  the  soil  always  influences  most 
favorably  capillary  action. 

Mr.  Cole,  the  author,  who  has  truly  led  the  waters  captive,  declares 
that  "the  methods  of  surface  irrigation,  when  compared  to  those  of  sub- 
surface, are  as  fractions  to  units." 

Says  the  able  author  of  a  book  from  which  quotations  have  been 
made  (Hon.  Geo.  P.  Marsh),  "The  readiness  with  which  water  not 
obstructed  by  impermeable  strata  diffuses  itself  through  the  earth  in  all 
directions,  shows  the  importance  of  keeping  up  the  supply  from  subterra- 
nean sources.  The  deep-lying  veins  and  sheets  of  water,  supplied  by 
infiltration,  from  often  comparatively  distant  sources,  send  up  moisture 
by  capillary  attraction  around  the  roots  of  vines  and  trees.  Without  the 
help  of  artificial  conduit,  or  of  water  carrier,  the  Thames  and  the  Seine 
refresh  the  ornamental  trees  that  shade  the  thoroughfares  of  London  and 
Paris,  (paved  by  flagstone  and  cement  almost  impervious  to  water)  and 
beneath  the  hot  and  reeking  mold  of  Egypt  the  Nile  sends  currents  to 
the  extremest  borders  of  its  valleys." 

The  diffusion  of  moisture  in  this  way  will  depend  then  mainly  upon 
two  conditions — the  supply  received  or  contained  in  the  underlying 
strata,  and  the  character  of  the  soil  operated  upon.  Two  other  points 
closely  allied  to  these  are,  the  storage  capacity  underneath  and  the 
manner  of  cultivation. 

Now  the  position  has  been  taken  for  sub-irrigation  for  the  orchard 
and  garden,  without  regard  to  any  artificial  system  for  carrying  it  out. 

The  objections  we  urge  to  surface  irrigation,  and  "  flooding  "  particu- 
larly, as  commonly  applied,  are  that  it  is  a  wasteful,  untidy,  unskillful 
and  often  an  unwholesome  method  of  distributing  water.  That  it  is 
objectionable  also  in  rigorous  climates,  because  of  its  tendency  to  induce 
surface  rooting,  and  for  the  further  reason  that  it  is  a  most  effective  means 
of  distributing  harmful  and  destructive  weeds.  Careless  surface  watering 
2 


1 8  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

often  results  in  excessive  saturation  and  caking  of  the  soil  and  in  the 
injurious  deposits  of  the  soluble  salts. 

In  discussing  "  Irrigation  in  Horticulture,"  Professor  Cassiday  says : 
"  Surface  irrigation,  whether  practiced  out  of  doors  or  in  the  plant  house, 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned,  as  it  unquestionably  induces  surface 
rooting — not  a  desirable  result  in  any  climate."  Besides  promoting 
surface  rooting  it  induces  a  continuous  evaporation,  and  refrigeration  of 
the  soil,  the  latter  acting  as  a  wick,  drawing  water  by  capillary  attraction 
to  be  absorbed  at  the  surface  by  the  air  with  which  it  comes  in  contact, 
and  depositing  at  its  surface  its  salts,  which,  if  in  too  .great  quantity,  are 
destructive  to  all  useful  vegetation.  The  "  furrow  system,"  although  often 
open  to  much  of  the  criticisms  abo\e,  is,  nevertheless,  when  used  with 
care  and  economy,  far  less  objectionable  than  is  the  practice  of  flooding.* 
Of  course,  either  natural  or  artificial  drainage  should  go  hand  in  hand 
with  any  system  of  irrigation. 

Professor  Short,  in  a  paper  read  some  three  years  since  before  the 
Colorado  State  Horticultural  Society,  said  :  "  When  irrigation  is  properly 
carried  on,  it  is  undoubtedly  the  best  and  safest  method  of  furnishing 
water  to  plants.  I  think  the  method  now  used  throughout  the  State  is  a 
very  bad  one." 

He  then  goes  on  to  show  that  the  water  used  from  our  mountain 
streams  is  laden  with  the  sulphates  of  soda,  magnesia  and  alumina,  which 
are  deposited  by  irrigating  ditches  on  our  lands  with  the  water,  and  hence, 
as  evaporation  takes  place,  large  quantities  of  these  soluble  salts  remain. 
After  a  repetition  for  several  years  of  this  process,  a  white  crust  is  formed, 
called  "alkali."  While  a  moderate  quantity  of  this  so-called  alkali  is 
beneficial  as  plant  food,  a  large  accumulation  is  exceedingly  injurious. 
This  is  the  chief  reason  that  some  land,  which  has  been  irrigated  for 
several  years,  will  not  produce  any  vegetable  growth.  As  one  remedy,  he 
suggests  underground 'drainage,  by  which  superfluous  water  would  sink 
into  the  soil  (with  most  of  the  objectionable  salts)  and  be  carried  off. 
Fresh  water  falling  would  also  aid  this.  Then,  concludes  Professor  Short, 
with  thorough  manuring,  the  lands  would  be  rendered  fit  for  continual 
use,  as  the  manure  furnishes  the  phosphates  and  nitrogenous  organic  food 


*I  am  aware  that  frequent  and  copious  flood  ings  are  sometimes  recommended 
for  dispersing  the  accumulated  salt  from  lands,  but  this  plan  seems  open  to 
serious  objections,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to  where  the  under-drainage  is 
not  good. 


THE    BEST    SYSTEM    OF    IRRIGATION  19 

for  the  plants,  and  irrigating  water  would  supply  the  soda,  lime,  potash,  etc. 
It  is  possible   that  the  best  system  of  irrigation   for   this  western 
country,  at  least,  has  not  yet  been  discovered.     The  "New  Agriculture" 
provides  for  storing  the  waters  in  parallel  trenches  four  or  five  feet  deep, 
and  of  the  same  width,  below  frost  line,  and  filling  in  these  trenches  with 
round  stones  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet,  tiling  to  be  used 
if  stones  are  not  to  be  had,  then  shingling  over  with  flat  stones,  or  tile,  or 
timber.     After  which,  to  prevent  the  earth  from  filling  up  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  stones,  any  coarse  material  like  straw,  hay,  weeds,  cornstalks  or 
fine  brush  are  placed  on.     A  heavy  coating  of  manure  may  follow  this,  and 
then  the  excavated  soil  is  placed  on  top.     A  series  of  these  trenches  are 
constructed  on  an  incline,  one  above  the  other,  about  a  rod  apart;  these 
main  reservoirs  or  trenches  are  connected  with  smaller  trenches,  about 
eighteen  inches  from  the  surface,  partly  filled  in  with  small  stones,  and 
designed  to  connect  and  convey  the  surplus  water  from  the  trench  above 
to  the  one  below.     These  are  called  overflow  trenches.     Each  of  these 
main  trenches,  then,  becomes  a  reservoir  capable  of  holding  three  feet  or 
more  ot  water  before  it  overflows  into  the  cross  trenches.     This  is  the 
method  by  which  Mr.  Cole  would  store  and  conserve  the  rains  and  melting 
snows  for  use  when  needed,  and  it  affords  an  excellent  illustration  of  the 
principle  of  irrigation  by  capillary  attraction,  or  by  the  gradual    and 
uniform  raising  and  diffusion  of  moisture  from  below.     Beyond  a  question 
it  is  correct  in  principle,  and  I  am  prepared  to  believe  all  the  reports  of 
results  from  experiments  at  the  "Home  on  the  Hillside."     As  to  what 
extent  this  system  may  be  utilized  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  under 
conditions  widely  different  from  those  where  tests  have  proven  so  satisfac- 
tory, remains  to  be  seen.     Mr.  Cole  not  only  reports  amazing  yields  under 
the  system,  but  claims  remarkable  immunity  from  disease  for  all  products 
grown  in  that  way.     The  expense  of  fitting  the  land  for  this  plan  amounts 
to  several  hundred  dollars  an  acre,  where  it  has  been  tested,  which  of 
itself,  appears  almost  a  bar  to  an  extended  adoption  of  the  system.     But 
Mr.  Cole  does  not  so  regard  it,  and  writes  under  date  of  Dec.  28th,  1887 : 
"  As  for  cost  of  fitting  lands;  were  it  to  cost  ten  thousand  millions  to  fit 
under  my  system  the  soils  of  Colorado,  as  a  return  interest,  at  six  per  cent, 
would  be  realized,  as  near  as  I  calculate,  on  $900,000,000,000,000,000,000. 
Don't  vote  me  a  crank,  now,  but  wait  for  a  letter  I  have  just  written  for 
my  ideal  paper,  your  Field  and  Farm."     The  progress  of  the  New  Agri- 
culture will  be  watched  with  interest. 


2O  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

THE    ASBESTINE   SYSTEM. 

This  method  of  sub-irrigation  was  devised  in  California  by  E.  M. 
Hamilton,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  "Hamilton  Process."  It  consists 
of  pipes  made  of  a  combination  of  Portland  cement,  lime,  sand  and  gravel, 
laid  at  a  depth  of  two  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  parallel  to  the 
rows  of  trees  or  vines  in  an  orchard  or  vineyard.  In  these  pipes,  on  the 
upper  side,  is  inserted  a  wooden  plug  opposite  each  tree  or  vine,  the  plugs 
having  tapering  holes  in  the  center  one-fourth  to  three-eights  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  through  which  the  water  finds  exit.  Each  plug  is  surrounded 
by  a  larger  stand  pipe,  setting  loosely  on  top  of  the  distributing  pipe,  open 
at  the  bottom  and  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  for  the  purpose 
of  keeping  the  dirt  away  from  the  outlet,  and  rendering  it  accessible  at 
all  times  for  inspection.  The  pipes  are  connected  with  maius  leading 
from  a  reservoir.  The  water  finds  its  way  through  all  the  outlets,  filling 
the  stand  pipes,  and  slowly  percolating  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  .No 
water  appears  on  the  surface. 

The  claim  is  made  for  this  method,  that  it  effects  a  very  great  saving 
of  water  over  the  ordinary  means  of  surface  application  ;  that  it  requires 
far  less  time  and  labor;  that  it  may  be  used  for  the  distribution  of  liquid 
manure;  that  it  does  not  cause  the  ground  to  bake  with  the  heat  of  the 
sun — no  water  appearing  at  the  surface;  that  no  grading  is , necessary ; 
that  the  growth  of  weeds  is  checked ;  and,  finally,  that  it  induces  deep, 
instead  of  shallow,  rooting,  as  is  the  tendency  with  surface  irrigation. 

The  further  claim  is  made  that,  by  keeping  the  water  from  standing 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  injurious  deposits  of  alkali  are  avoided. 
These  points  are  strong,  and  if  they  can  be  sustained,  which  is  by  no 
means  improbable  in  many  localities,  the  system  is  destined  to  great  pop- 
ularity and  usefulness.  In  many  parts  of  California  it  is  giving  much 
satisfaction. 

The  Australian  member  of  parliament,  Mr.  Dakin,  from  whose  report 
we  have  already  quoted,  in  commenting  on  this  system,  after  a  mention  of 
the  fact  that  irrigation  beneath  the  surface,  if  not  excessive,  is  considered 
the  most  perfect  method  of  supplying  water  to  vegetable  life;  because  it 
can  avoid  the  dangers  of  over-saturation,  surface  caking,  and  of  washing 
out  the  richer  elements  in  the  soil,  as  well  as  accomplish  an  enormous 
saving  in  water,  says :  "  It  certainly  appears  that  sub-irrigation  is  the  hope 
of  the  most  intelligent  irrigators,  because  it  promises  a  great  economy  of 


THE    BEST    SYSTEM    OF    IRRIGATION.  21 

water,  and  the  most  direct  application  of  it  to  the  thirsty  tree  that  it  is 
possible  to  devise." 

The  difficulties  that  naturally  suggest  themselves  in  the  way  of  com- 
plete success  in  this  plan  are  the  liability  to  have  the  pipes  stopped  up, 
either  by  tree  roots  or  sediment.  The  advocates  of  the  system  claim  that 
both  of  these  dangers  have  been  anticipated  by  ample  provision  for  either 
guarding  against  or  clearing  obstructions  of  this  kind.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
probable  that  in  some  localities  obstructions  similar  to  those  named  might 
be  serious  drawbacks  to  the  successful  working  of  any  system  of  conveying 
water  by  pipes.  But  that  all  these  hinderances  will  ultimately  be  over- 
come, there  seems  little  doubt. 

The  Asbestine  system  is  attracting  wide  attention  at  the  present 
time.  Professor  Cassiday  makes  favorable  mention  of  it,  and  thinks  that 
at  this  altitude,  where  surface  evaporation  is  rapid  and  water  quickly 
dissipated,  for  this  and  other  reasons  already  pointed  out,  that  "sub-irri- 
gation offers  positive  advantages."  At  Gardenside  we  have  tested  the 
method  in  a  small  way  only,  but  see  no  reason  why  it  may  not  succeed. 

It  will  be  more  fully  tried  here.  But  the  man  who  has  given  it  the 
most  thorough  trial  in  Colorado  is  Mr.  Gravestock,  of  Canon  City,  and 
we  have  let  him  tell  the  results  in  his  own  words. 

If  those  interested  would  give  this,  or  any  similar  invention,  a  trial, 
first  in  a  small  way,  under  different  conditions  of  soil  and  location,  in  a 
few  years  we  would  be  prepared  to  speak  understandingly  of  its  merits  for 
this  region. 

SUB-IRRIGATION. 

CANON  CITY,  COLO.,  December  5th,  1887. 

Your  letter  is  received.  With  reference  to  sub-irrigation,  will  just 
say  that  this  is  the  fourth  season  I  have  tried  it,  and  I  cannot  speak  too 
highly  of  it.  I  have  in  only  about  a  thousand  feet,  but  enough  to  satisfy 
me  that  when  properly  applied  it  is  a  grand  success  in  Colorado.  Had 
not  my  fruit  trees  and  grape  vines  been  so  old,  I  should  have  put  my 
whole  place  into  sub-irrigation,  but  as  my  orchard  and  vineyard  was  full 
of  roots,  I  was  afraid  of  doing  it  an  irreparable  injury  by  cutting  too 
many  roots  in  digging  trenches  to  lay  the  pipe. 

I  have  three  short  rows,  of  a  little  over  300  feet  in  length,  to  which  I 
have  planted  one  row  of  standard  pear,  one  row  of  plums,  and  a  row  of 
grape  vines  between  and  each  side  of  my  fruit  trees.  All  have  made  a 


22  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

remarkably  fine  growth  this  season.  My  young  plum  trees  especially 
have  made  a  growth  this  year  of  nearly  six  feet  of  fine,  stout  wood  and 
well  ripened  up.  Some  young  Salem  and  Duchess  grape  vines,  four  years 
old,  made  a  growth  of  over  twelve  feet  this  season,  although  they  have 
been  attacked  a  good  deal  with  the  grape  leaf  hopper.  As  for  conducting 
water  long  distances,  the  cement  pipe  cannot  be  beat,  neither  for  durabil- 
ity, cleanliness  or  cheapness. 

Sub-irrigation  is  away  ahead  of  surface  irrigation.  I  would  put  it 
about  as  far  ahead  as  surface  irrigation  is  of  the  old  hand  watering-pot 
we  used  to  use  when  we  were  boys,  with  our  wet  legs  and  tired  arms  and 
back. 

From  the  same  writer,  December  23d : 

With  reference  to  size  of  pipe,  will  say  that  the  laterals  for  distrib- 
uting the  water  are  2-inch  bore ;  the  main,  that  laterals  are  attached  to, 


Fig.  1. 

Figure  1  illustrates  the  machine  used  in  making  this  cement,  and  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  done. 

are  3-inch  bore.     Trenches  are  dug  16  inches  deep  and  16  inches  wide  for 
convenience  of  laying  pipe. 

As  to  your  second  question — how  often  to  irrigate — will  say:  If  I  had 
an  orchard  of  young  trees,  just  planted,  and  to  be  irrigated  by  this  method, 
I  would,  the  first  season,  irrigate  once  a  week.  Say  let  the  water  run  from 
one  hour  to  one  and  a  half,  according  to  nature  of  soil.  After  the  first  sea- 
son, once  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks  would  be  quite  enough.  This,  I  think, 
has  proven  to  be  enough  on  my  soil,  which  is  a  sandy  loam.  As  to  sug- 
gesting any  improvement  in  the  method,  will  just  say  that  if  the  plugs 
were  four  to  six  inches  above  the  pipes,  instead  of  two.  it  would  certainly 


THE   BEST   SYSTEM    OF    IRRIGATION.  23 

be  better,  as  grit  and  small  pebbles  would  not  be  so  apt  to  get  in  the  plugs 
to  affect  the  discharge  of  water. 

I  don't  know  of  a  single  instance  where  I  would  prefer  the  old  method 
to  sub-irrigation,  except  for  corn  and  grain  growing.  As  to  expense  per 
acre  (that's  the  place  where  the  shoe  pinches),  this  depends  a  good  deal 
on  circumstances — whether  you  want  to  irrigate  orchard,  vineyard  or 
garden  ;  and  another  big  item  is  the  price  at  which  you  can  get  Portland 
cement.  One  barrel  of  cement  and  one  barrel  of  dry-slacked  lime,  free 
from  lumps,  will  make  about  350  feet  of  2-inch  pipe.  By  using  seven 
parts  sand  (must  be  clean),  one  part  Portland  cement  and  one  part  lime, 
will  make  350  feet  of  good  2-inch  pipe;  so  you  can  easily  figure  for  your- 
self what  it  would  cost  per  acre. 


PIPES,  CONDUITS,  ETC. 

The  use  of  pipes,  flumes  and  lined  channels,  for  conveying  water  long 
distances,  will  ultimately  come  into  extensive  use  in  all  sections  where 
water  is  scarce  and  costly. 

Few  of  us  realize  the  enormous  losses  by  seepage  and  evaporation  in 
conveying  water  by  means  of  opens  canals  and  laterals.  Mr.  Dakin  esti- 
mates this  waste  at  from  25  to  50  per  cent.,  and  cites  one  instance  where  it 
was  far  greater — a  canal  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  which  took  90  cubic 
feet  per  second  at  its  head,  and  only  delivered  14  cubic  feet  per  second  on 
the  farms  28  miles  away.  "  Some  put,"  says  Mr.  Dakin,  "  the  loss  of 
farmer  and  canal  proprietor  together  as  high  as  nine-tenths  of  the  water 
diverted,  others  at  three-fourths,  and  it  is  rarely  calculated  at  less  than 
the  latter  figure." 

Professor  Mead,  who  fills  the  chair  of  Physics  and  Engineering  in  the 
Colorado  Agricultural  College,  calculates  that  the  atmosphere  takes  up 
from  the  surface  of  the  Poudre  district  (in  Northern  Colorado),  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July,  at  least  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when,  instead  of 
open,  excavated  channels  in  the  soil  for  conveying  water,  closed  or  imper- 
vious piping,  flumes  and  the  like  will  be  largely  employed. 

In  California,  according  to  Mr.  Hinton's  report,  the  following  conduits 
are  used:  (1)  Wooden  flumes,  (2)  lined  channels,  (3)  wrought  iron 
riveted  asphalted  pipes,  (4)  wrought  iron  asphalted  pipes,  (5)  terra  cotta 
pipes,  (6)  cemented  pipes,  (7)  asphalt  pipes.  Of  course,  whatever  is 
selected  for  this  purpose  must  be  able  to  resist  the  action  of  the  salts  as 
well  as  of  the  elements. 


RESERVOIRS,  WELLS,  ETC. 

It  seems  evident  that  the  reservoir  or  storage  system,  for  supplying 
water  for  irrigating  purposes,  will  enter  into  the  agricultural  economy  of 
this  country  to  an  extent  not  thought  or  dreamed  of  as  possible  to-day. 
Not  only  will  the  Great  Plains — "the  possible  homes  of  fifty  million 
people" — be  supplied  from  mountain  and  upland  storage,  but  the  system 
will  extend,  in  one  form  or  another,  through  the  broad  acres  of  the  Great 
Northwest,  and  even  to  all  sections  of  our  land.  The  waters  will  be  con- 
served, "led  captive,"  and  utilized  in  a  hundred  ways,  of  which  we  have 
not,  perhaps,  the  remotest  conception. 

China  is  said  to  have  one  irrigating  canal  a  thousand  miles  in  length, 
and  other  nations  of  the  Old  World  are  close  rivals.  The  extent  to 
which  storage  is  practiced  there  can  hardly  be  realized  by  us,  but  it  is 
sufficient  for  us  to  state  here  that  the  most  sagacious  minds  of  all  those 
lands  early  saw  the  importance  of  a  certain  and  ample  system  of  water 
storage  to  the  permanent  welfare  of  the  people. 

Storage,  then,  with  improved  methods  of  conveying  water,  will  be  a 
leading  problem  in  the  agricultural  development  of  this  nation  for  the 
century  to  come. 

Much  can  and  will  be  done,  in  a  limited  way,  by  means  of  artesian 
wells,  wind-mills,  steam  pumps  and  hydraulic  appliances  for  raising  water 
connected  with  distributing  pipes. 

In  Syria,  extensive  vineyards  are  irrigated  from  large  wells  dug  for 
that  purpose.  And  in  portions  of  the  southern  San  Joaquin  Valley,  Cali- 
fornia, irrigation  from  artesian  wells  is  relied  on  largely.  One  well,  bored 
to  the  depth  of  310  feet  in  1879,  was  made  to  water  successfully  a  40-acre 
tract  of  land  set  to  forest  trees,  and  it  is  claimed  that  some  of  the  wells  in 
Tulare  county,  with  an  average  capacity  of  247  gallons  per  minute,  will 
water  thoroughly  160  acres  of  land.  The  average  flow  of  the  wells  in  this 
county  (Tulare)  are  given  as  two  and  one-half  inches  above  the  casing. 
These  instances  serve  to  show  the  possibilities  of  irrigation  by  artesian 
wells  in  specially  favored  regions,  where  geological  and  surface  formations 
are  favorable. 


26  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

For  small  tracts  (under  close  culture)  of  one,  two,  or  even  five  acres, 
the  wind-mill,  with  large  tank  or  reservoir  connected,  is  now  used  in 
different  portions  of  the  country  for  supplying  water.  In  this  case,  iron 
or  cement  piping,  or  wooden  conduits,  are  employed  for  conveying  the 
water  where  desired. 

Wherever  the  Asbestine  system  is  practicable,  and  a  supply  of  water 
amounting  to  from  25,000  to  100,000  or  more  gallons  can  be  stored,  by 
means  of  wind-mill,  steam  pump  or  hydraulic  power,  a  considerable  tract 
may  be  watered.  Reference  has  heretofore  been  made  to  the  fact  that,  in 
one  instance  in  California,  three  acres  of  young  trees  were  thoroughly 
irrigated  in  half  an  hour  by  this  underground  method,  and  with  less  than 
3,000  gallons  of  water.  This,  of  course,  was  under  highly  favorable  con- 
ditions. 

But  the  promoters  of  the  Asbestine  plan  assert  that  an  artesian  well 
with  the  capacity  of  100,000  or  150,000  gallons  daily,  will  readily  supply 
all  the  moisture  required  on  a  farm  of  160  acres.  This  statement  is  given, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  intimating  that  this  claim  has  been  sustained,  nor 
to  endorse  the  assumption  that  the  system  is  practicable  for  the  needs  of 
general  farming,  but  with  the  sole  object  of  illustrating  the  possibilities, 
even  of  the  artesian  well,  wind-mill  or  steam  pump,  with  the  right  appli- 
ances for  distributing  the  water  so  supplied.  Great  improvements  may  be 
safely  anticipated  in  this  direction,  as  well  as  in  the  building  of  mammoth 
canals  and  gigantic  reservoirs. 


JUDGE  JAMES  MARSH  CLARK, 

Whose  portrait  is  given  on  this  page,  was  born  in  New  York  City, 
December  8th,  1810,  and  has  been  an  earnest,  enthusiastic  horticulturist 
all  his  life.  He  inherited  a  love  for  this  calling  from  a  long  line  of 
ancestry,  dating  back  prior  to  the  days  of  the  American  Revolution.  At 
an  early  age  he  had  charge  of  the  planting  of  an  orchard  for  his  uncle  in 
New  Jersey.  A  little  later  he  pushed  westward,  and  in  1828  planted 


quite  an  extensive  orchard  in  Indiana.  A  few  years  later,  in  pursuit  of 
health,  he  moved  to  Wisconsin,  and  was  among  the  earliest  planters  in 
that  State— first  at  Fon-du-lac,  in  1840,  for  a  friend  ;  near  Madison,  in  1841, 
for  himself ;  and  afterwards  near  Baraboo,  in  1847.  At  this  last  named 
place  he  resided  twenty  years,  and  achieved  such  remarkable  success 
as  an  amateur  fruit  grower  that  in  a  few  years  he  was  able  to  show 
one  hundred  varieties  of  apples  alone  grown  in  that  trying  climate. 


28  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

This  success  was  not  only  the  nrarvel  of  his  own  section  of  the  State,  but 
became  widely  known  in  other  parts;  and  in  1867  he  was  awarded  first  prize 
by  the  Wisconsin  State  Horticultural  Society  for  the  largest  and  best  col- 
lection of  apples  grown  in  that  State ;  also  several  special  premiums  for  best 
varieties  for  different  seasons  and  localities.  All  this  was  accomplished 
while  Judge  Clark  was  holding  responsible  official  positions.  In  1861, 
being  severely  prostrated  by  ill-health,  he  made  a  trip  to  Colorado,  and 
in  May  of  that  year  planted  an  orchard  in  Boulder  County  for  James 
Maxwell,  a  prominent  citizen  of  Boulder  City,  and  the  father  of  Hon. 
James  P.  Maxwell,  also  of  Boulder.  This,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  makes 
Judge  Clark  the  pioneer  fruit  planter  of  Colorado. 

Subsequently,  in  1861,  he  returned  to  Wisconsin  to  lend  his  influence 
and  aid  to  the  cause  of  the  Union  in  the  Great  Conflict  which  followed. 
In  1867  poor  health  again  prompted  him  to  seek  the  milder  climate  of 
East  Tennessee.  Here  he  at  once  planted  an  orchard  ;  but  his  surround- 
ings not  being  congenial,  in  the  chaos  that  followed  the  war,  he  moved  to 
Kansas  in  1869,  and  was  the  first  orchardist  in  Oswego  Township,  of  that 
State.  From  Kansas  Judge  Clark  came  to  Colorado  again  in  1871  and 
joined  his  fortunes  with  the  Union  Colony  of  Colorado,  locating  perma- 
nently at  Greeley,  where  he  still  resides. 

True  to  his  faith  and  tastes  he  brought  a  considerable  stock  of  fruit 
trees  and  plants,  at  large  expense,  and  at  once  proceeded  to  establish  his 
favorite  fruit  garden.  Here  he  has  remained  with  his  noble  wife,  sur- 
rounded by  a  prosperous  and  influential  family  of  children,  among  whom 
are  J.  Max.,  and  A.  B.  Clark,  well  known  as  leading  farmers  of  Northern 
Colorado.  Year  after  year  "Father  (Hark"  has  experimented  with  vari- 
ous new  varieties  and  added  to  his  already  choice  collection  of  hardy 
horticultural  products.  Notwithstanding  his  advanced  years,  he  is  still 
active  and  enthusiastic,  and  believes  that  one  should  never  be  too  old  to 
plant  a  tree  or  shrub.  As  he  said  to  me  the  other  day :  "  I  was  scarcely 
ever  in  a  state  a  week  without  planting  (if  health  and  season  permitted) 
tree  or  fruit  stock  of  some  kind  ;  and  aside  from  any  benefit  that  this  may 
have  been  to  others,  I  am  confident  that  my  active  interest  in  this  work 
has  prolonged  my  life  at  least  twenty  years."  An  acquaintance  of 
Charles  Downing,  a  contemporary  of  Marshal  P.  Wilder,  the  father  of 
John  J.  Thomas,  and  a  score  of  other  distinguished  men  in  pomology, 
Judge  Clark  has  had  unusual  opportunites  for  study  and  observation, 
and  has  improved  them  well. 


JUDGE    JAMES    MARSH    CLARK.  29 

The  following  incident  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  this  sketch 
is  given  to  illustrate  his  deep  devotion  to  his  loved  vocation : 

Arbor  day,  1886,  was  observed  by  the  various  schools  in  and  about 
Greeley.  A  procession  of  all  the  children  was  formed  at  the  main  build- 
ing and  they  marched  from  one  school  house  to  the  other,  eaeh  grade 
planting  as  many  trees  as  there  were  classes,  about  their  building. 
Bringing  up  the  rear  of  the  long  line  of  school  children,  mostly  dressed 
in  white,  was  "Father  Clark,"  carrying  in  one  hand  a  spade,  in  the  other 
a  two-year-old  apple  tree,  which,  with  his  own  hands  he  planted  at  the 
Second  Ward  school  house.  It  was  indeed  a  beautiful  picture  to  witness 
the  silver-haired  veteran  of  seventy-six  years,  surrounded  by  many 
children,  planting  a  tree,  and  it  left  a  lasting  impression  upon  those  wit- 
nessing the  scene  and  who  listened  to  the  remarks  of  the  sage  as  he 
addressed  the  children  :  "  I  plant  this  tree,  not  with  the  hope  or  expec- 
tation of  myself  seeing  its  fruit,  but  for  your  benefit,  my  children. 
Doubtless  there  are  many  here  to-day  whose  children  may  enjoy  the  fruit 
and  shade  of  this  tree.  Thus  may  you  learn  the  lesson — 'Do  what  you 
can,  though  never  so  little,  for  the  good  of  those  who  come  after  us.'" 

The  children  responded  heartily  in  song,  singing,  "  Swinging  'neath 
the  old  apple  tree." 

All  honor  to  the  men  who  are  contented  to  sow  and  to  plant 
that  others  may  partake  of  the  fruits  of  their  honest  toil  and  unselfish 
devotion  to  a  noble  calling.  A  cultured,  modest  man,  a  skilled  pomologist 
and  a  lover  of  mankind,  "Father  Clark"  has  lived  to  ripe  old  age  and 
has  served  well  his  day  and  generation. 


THE   ORCHARD. 

The  average  Colorado  soil  will  do  for  the  orchard  and  garden,  but  if 
one  has  a  choice  in  this  particular,  preference  should  be  given  to  rich, 
deep  sandy  loam,  with  a  clayey,  sandy  sub-soil ;  and  if  there  is  an  oppor- 
tunity for  a  choice  in  exposure,  select  a  north  or  northeast  slope  for  the 
orchard. 

It  is  useless,  however,  here  in  the  West,  to  insist  on  either  of  these 
preferences,  as  the  "  lay  of  the  land  "  is,  in  so  many  cases,  nearly  level 
over  wide  stretches,  and  the  ideal  soil  is  not  always  to  be  found.  Any 
land  that  will  produce  good  general  farm  crops  can  usually  be  relied  on  to 
grow  good  trees,  and  while  a  northern  slope  tends  to  protect  against  the 
action  of  a  hot  sun  and  to  avoid  premature  growth  in  the  early  spring, 
still,  with  care  and  good  culture,  natural  obstacles  or  disadvantages  may 
be  greatly  modified,  if  not  overcome. 

Upon  the  subject  of  soil  adaptation,  I  quote  from  Mr.  P.  Barry,  a 
recognized  authority  :  "  For  an  orchard  of  apples  or  pears,  a  dry,  deep, 
substantial  soil,  between  sandy  and  clayey  loam,  and  possessing  among  its 
inorganic  parts  a  considerable  portion  of  lime,  is,  according  to  all  experi- 
ence, the  best.  On  such  soils  we  find  the  greatest  "and  most  enduring 
vigor  and  fertility,  the  healthiest  and  hardiest  trees,  and  the  finest  and 
best  flavored  fruits.  The  plum  succeeds  best,  as  a  general  thing,  on  a 
clayey  loam,  rather  stiff.  *  ;  *  "  -':  *  The  cherry,  peach,  apricot, 
nectarine,  and  almond,  require  a  light,  dry  and  warm  soil."  He  further 
says:  "There  are  two  points  to  be  observed,  under  all  circumstances,  in 
regard  to  soils.  They  must  possess  the  inorganic  substances,  such  as  lime, 
potash,  etc.,  that  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the  wood  and  bark  of  fruit 
trees,  when  burned,  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  organic  matter — vegetable 
mould,  which  dissolves  and  furnishes  materials  for  the  formation  and 
growth  of  new  parts/' 

If  the  land  chosen  has  not  been  cultivated,  a  good  plan  is  to  grow  a 
potato  or  corn  crop  the  season  before  setting  the  trees.  This  tends  to 
subdue  the  soil,  and  make  it  of  better  texture  for  planting.  In  any  event, 
it  is  desirable  to  break  the  land  the  season  previous  to  setting.  If  this  is 


THE    ORCHARD.  $1 

to  be  done,  turn  the  sod  under  rather  shallow  in  midsummer,  or  when  the 
native  grass  is  most  thrifty,  and  in  the  autumn  plow  again,  this  time 
length-wise  of  the  furrow  and  deep  enough  to  bury  the  sod  several  inches. 
The  point  is  not  only  to  have  the  soil  subdued  and  mellow,  but  to  have 
the  native  growth  turned  under  so  that  it  will  decay  and  fertilize  the 
land. 

The  following  spring,  before  planting,  run  over  the  land  with  a  heavy 
harrow,  to  smooth  down  lumps  and  level  up  for  the  trees.  Previous  to 
this,  however,  see  that  the  right  grade  is  established  for  irrigation. 
Every  arrangement  in  connection  with  the  orchard,  of  course,  should  be 
consistent  with  convenience  in  irrigating.  , 

There  are  various  ways  of  laying  out  an  orchard,  some  of  which  in- 
volve considerable  work  and  painstaking  care.  But  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant considerations  are  to  have  the  trees  well  planted,  and  in  a  manner 
consistent  with  good  cultivation  and  a  proper  regard  for  economizing 
space.  After  this  the  matter  of  general  appearance  may  be  considered. 
If  one  is  not  particular  about  perfect  accuracy  or  range  in  the  plan,  a  very 
good  as  well  as  expeditious  way  is  to  mark  out  the  ground  with  a  plow, 
running  furrows  at  desired  distances  each  way. 

This  can  be  done  with  reasonable  precision  by  the  aid  of  stakes  at 
regular  intervals,  to  enable  the  plowman  to  keep  his  bearings.  If  one 
wishes  to  plant  so  that  the  trees  will  range  perfectly,  not  only  each  way, 
but  diagonally,  the  following  plan  for  laying  out,  as  given  by  Mr.  Thomas, 
in  "  The  American  Fruit  Cultnrist,"  is  quite  simple  and  easily  accomplished : 

"The  following  mode  of  laying  out  and  planting  will  not  require 
one-twentieth  of  the  labor  commonly  devoted,  and  will  give  rows  that 
will  range  perfectly,  not  only  in  both  directions,  but  diagonally.  The 
writer  has  found  that  two  men  would  thus  la}7  out  from  thirty  to  forty 
acres  in  a  day,  with  perfect  precision,  for  planting. 

"  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  procure  as  many  short  pins  or  stakes,  a  few 
inches  long,  as  there  are  to  be  trees  in  the  orchard.  These  may  be  made 
by  simply  splitting  short  blocks  or  boards  with  an  axe,  say  half  an  inch 
in  diameter ;  or  corn  cobs  will  answer  a  good  purpose,  and  may  be  more 
easily  seen.  Then  procure  a  strong  cord,  as  long  as  one  side  of  the 
orchard,  or,  if  the  orchard  is  very  large,  as  long  as  each  section  may  be, 
if  necessary  to  divide  it.  Then,  with  a  pole  or  measure,  mark  off  the  dis- 
tances of  the  trees  on  this  line,  sticking  a  common  brass  pin  through  at 
each  place  for  a  tree,  bending  it  around  the  cord  so  that  it  will  not  come 


32  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

out.  Red  yarn  sewed  through  and  tied  around  the  cord  would  be  more 
visible  than  pins ;  but  the  latter  are  quickly  found  if  the  workman 
measures  the  distance  by  pacing  between  them  as  he  walks  from  one  to 
the  other.  A  new  cord  will  stretch  a  little  at  first,  but  will  soon  cease  to  do 
so.  The  easiest  way  to  mark  the  spaces  on  the  cord  is  to  wrap  it  around 
the  ends  of  a  board  cut  at  the  right  length,  SD  that  every  third  coil  will 
be  a  place  for  a  pin.  Thus,  if  the  board  is  five  feet  long,  by  marking 
every  third  coil  at  the  end  of  the  board,  we  obtain  spaces  of  thirty  feet. 
The  field  having  been  plowed  and  fitted  for  planting,  we  are  now  ready 
for  operation.  Select  a  still  day,  so  that  the  wind  will  not  blow  the  cord 
out  of  place,  and  then  stretch  the  line  along  one  side  of  the  field,  at  a  suit- 
able distance  from  the  fence  where  the  first  row  is  to  be  made.  Make 
it  as  straight  as  possible,  by  drawing  on  it  forcibly  ;  a  stout  cord  is  better 
than  a  weak  one  on  this  account.  If  the  land  is  tolerably  level,  twenty  or 
thirty  rods  may  be  measured  off  at  a  time.  Place  flat  stones  or  other 
heavy  weights  upon  it  at  intervals,  to  keep  it  in  position  ;  if  there  is  some 
wind,  care  will  be  necessary  in  making  it  perfectly  straight  before  thus 
fixing  it.  Next,  drive  in  oae  of  the  short  pegs  or  sticks  at  each  point 
marked  by  the  pin  already  described.  When  this  is  done,  one  row  will 
be  marked,  then  remove  the  line,  and  mark  each  end  of  the  field  at  right 
angles  to  this  in  the  same  way.  Lastly,  mark  the  remaining  side.  Before 
marking  both  ends,  it  is  safest  to  stretch  the  line  on  the  fourth  side,  that 
all  may  be  perfectly  spaced.  Next,  to  fill  up  this  hollow  square  with  the 
proper  marks,  stretch  the  line  successively  between  corresponding  sticks 
on  the  opposite  sides,  and  mark  as  before  till  the  whole  is  completed.  If 
the  work  has  been  carefully  done,  every  stake  will  be  found  to  range  per- 
fectly. Every  cord  will  stretch  more  or  less,  but  if  stretched  so  that  the 
ends  will  come  even  each  time,  which  is  attended  with  no  difficulty,  the 
rows  will  be  perfect. 

"  Next,  take  a  strip  of  board,  say  about  eight  feet  long  and  six  inches 
wide,  and  cut  a  notch  in  one  side  at  the  middle,  just  large  enough  to  let  in 
the  stem  of  a  tree.  Bore  a  hole  through  each  end,  exactly  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  this  notch.  Then,  whenever  a  tree  is  to  be  planted,  place  the 
middle  notch  around  the  peg,  and  thrust  two  other  pegs  through  the  holes 
at  the  ends.  Then  take  up  the  board,  leaving  these  two  pegs,  dig  the 
hole,  replace  the  board,  and  set  the  tree  in  the  notch.  Proceed  in  this 
way  till  the  whole  orchard  is  planted.  It  is  obvious  that  the  trees  will 
stand  precisely  where  the  first  pegs  were  placed,  and  will  range  in  perfect 


THE    ORCHARD. 


33 


rows.  A  large  number  or  series  of  the  two  pins  may  be  set  successively 
by  the  board,  so  that  a  number  of  workmen  may  be  digging  and  planting 
at  the  same  time.  It  is  of  no  importance  in  what  direction  the  board  is 
placed,  as  the  pin  and  tree  will  occupy  the  same  spot." 

In  addition  to  marking  out  with  the  plow,  as  already  described,  when 
everything  is  in  readiness  for  planting,  the  work  may  be  hastened  and 
made  effective  by  running  a  sub-soil  plow  along  the  furrows.  This  not 
only  serves  to  excavate  the  ground  for  the  reception  of  the  trees,  but  it 
combines  in  a  measure  the  advantages  of  trenching,  with  deep  stirring 
and  pulverizing  of  the  sub-soil.  It  is  practiced  by  some  of  our  most  sue- 


A  badly  planted  tree 


A  well  planted  tree. 


cessful  orchardists,  and  among  them  David  Brothers,  of  Jefferson 
County,  Colorado,  and  is  especially  to  be  commended  in  all  sections 
subject  to  scarcity  of  moisture  or  of  water  for  irrigating  purposes.  If  the 
soil  is  not  of  the  best,  this  preparation  may  be  advantageously  followed 
by  filling  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench  with  a  few  inches  of  well-rotted 
manure,  over  which  a  covering  of  top  soil  should  be  placed  before  setting 
the  trees.  But  whether  manure  is  applied  in  this  way  or  not,  the  deep 
furrow  will  have  to  be  filled  up  to  the  proper  depth  for  planting,  as  of 
course  the  bottom  of  the  trench  would  be  too  deep  for  young  trees.  After 
this  preparatory  work  the  planting  can  be  readily  accomplished.  In 


34  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

small  gardens  the  line  and  spade  would  have  to  be  used  instead  of  the  plow. 

Go  down  well  in  digging  holes,  and  make  the  excavation  broad  and 
deep,  and  have  the  soil  mellow,  so  as  to  give  the  roots  of  the  tree  ample 
room.  Trenching  or  sub-soiling  may  precede  this  preparation,  but  it 
should  be  understood  that  there  is  some  hazard  in  highly  enriching  the 
soil  for  young  fruit  trees.  It  often  forces  them  into  a  strong  growth 
which  a  succeeding  unfavorable  winter  finds  immature,  and  serious  injury 
results.  This  caution  is  dropped  here,  but  manuring  will  be  referred  to 
again  further  on. 

Before  setting  the  trees,  pare  off  smoothly  all  torn  or  mutilated  roots 
by  a  slanting  cut  with  a  knife,  then  place  the  tree  in  the  hole  at  about  the 
same  depth  that  it  stood  in  the  nursery  row,  if  anything,  in  this  climate,  a 
trifle  deeper ;  spread  out  the  roots  in  their  natural  position.  Be  sure  to 
have  the  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  moist  and  mellow.  When  the 
tree  is  placed  in  position  (and  if  the  site  is  level  and  exposed  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun,  it  is  well  to  incline  the  top  a  little  towards  the  South- 
west) fill  in  around  the  roots  with  fine  soil,  and  occasionally  raise  the  tree 
a  trifle  so  that  the  soil  may  be  well  worked  in.  As  the  dirt  is  being 
thrown  on,  press  firmly  with  the  foot  until  the  hole  is  filled  up.  If 
water  for  irrigation  is  not  immediately  at  hand,  it  is  well  after  the  hole  is 
partially  filled  to  pour  in  a  half-bucketful  or  so.  But  this  need  not  be 
done  if  water  can  be  turned  in  the  laterals  and  allowed  to  saturate  the 
ground,  and  thus  fully  settle  the  soil  around  the  roots.  Very  cold  water, 
however,  should  be  used  sparingly,  if  at  all,  where  it  comes  in  contact 
with  roots  of  any  kind. 

In  transplanting  or  removing  trees  from  nursery,  never  expose  the 
roots  to  the  sun  or  dry  winds;  keep  them  moist  at  all  times.  This  is  a 
very  essential  precaution.  Right  here  the  first  fatal  mistake  is  often 
made  in  handling  trees  and  plants.  When  the  planting  is  done,  it  is 
often  beneficial  to  place  around  the  tree  a  liberal  coating  of  coarse  litter 
or  manure,  but  never  permit  green  manure  to  be  placed  in  contact  with 
the  trunk  of  the  tree. 

PRUNING. 

A  young  tree  that  has  been  properly  grown  in  the  nursery  will  need 
very  little  pruning  at  the  time  of  transplanting.  As  already  stated,  in 
transplanting  all  mutilated  roots  should  be  dressed  by  cutting  back  to  the 
sound  wood  with  a  smooth,  slanting  cut,  "on  the  under  side  of  the  root." 


THE    ORCHARD. 


35 


After  this  is  done,  to  preserve  the  necessary  balance  between  the  branch 
and  the  roots,  authorities  agree  that  the  branches  should  be  cut  out  and 
shortened  so  as  to  correspond  with^the  condition  of  the  roots.  In  other 
words,  leave  enough  branches  only  to  form  a  compact  (not  crowded)  head, 
and  cut  these  back,  say  one-third,  or  to  within  a  half-dozen  buds  of  the 
base  of  each  of  the  branches.  By  this  treatment  your  tree  ought  to  have 
a  good  start.  But  trees  differ'so  much  in  make-up  and  habits  of  growth 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  give  specific  directions  about  pruning,  and 
this  is  especially  true  when  we  consider  the  different  aims  sought  by  the 
practice. 

All  things  considered,  the  low-headed,  stocky  trees  are  safest  for  the 
plains,  and  those  portions  of   the  West  exposed  to  sudden  and  violent 


Well  Formed  Lowheaded  Apple  Tree. 

extremes  of  temperature.  They  are  self-protecting,  and  in  a  measure 
prevent  sun  scald,  and  the  trunk  and  earth  immediately  around  from 
becoming  overheated  in  the  spring,  and  inducing  an  early  rise  of  sap. 

If  trees  are  to  be  headed  high  in  large  orchards,  except  in  favored 
situations,  the  trunks  should  be  protected  from  the  action  of  the  sun. 

If  the  tree  is  taken  up  with  roots  well  preserved,  there  will  be  little 
necessity  of  severe  pruning  or  cutting  back.  The  use  of  knife  or  saw  on 
any  tree  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  If  taken  in  hand  when 


36  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

young,  the  top  may  be  formed  easily  by  pinching  off  the  heads  where  they 
are  not  needed. 

Pruning  may  be  done  in  autumn  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  also  during 
the  winter  and  the  early  spring.  Mr.  Downing,  the  eminent  horticultur- 
ist, says :  "  We  should  especially  avoid  pruning  at  that  period  in  spring 
when  the  buds  are  swelling  and  the  sap  in  full  flow,  as  the  loss  of  sap  by 
bleeding  is  very  injurious  to  most  trees,  and  in  some  brings  on  a  serious 
and  incurable  canker  in  the  limbs." 

In  removing  a  limb,  cut  just  outside  of  the  crown  or  collar.  This  is 
quite  important.  The  collar  is  a  small  ridge  of  bark  to  be  seen  on  limbs 
near  the  body  of  the  tree. 

If  severe  pruning  must  be  done,  especially  in  the  established  orchard, 
where  large  limbs  have  to  be  removed,  it  is  very  important  that  the 
wounds  heal  early.  In  such  cases  summer  pruning  should  be  practiced. 
It  may  be  done  either  when  the  tree  is  in  partial  leaf,  or  when  in  full  leaf 
and  blossom.  The  former  is  probably  the  better  time.  I  would  not 
recommend  much  winter  pruning  in  any  locality  where  the  winters  are 
severe,  for  the  reason  that  fresh  wounds  render  trees  liable  to  injury  from 
extreme  cold. 

In  removing  large  limbs,  always  first  make  a  cut  on  the  under  side, 
to  prevent  splitting  or  peeling  off  the  bark  before  the  limb  is  fully  severed. 
This  will  occur  if  knife  or  saw  is  used  on  the  upper  side  before  the  lower 
cut  is  made. 

An  excellent  preparation  for  covering  wounds  made  by  pruning,  is 
gum  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol  to  the  consistency  of  paint,  and  applied 
to  the  wounded  surface  with  a  small  paint  brush. 

After  the  orchard  has  been  planted,  unless  the  soil  is  moist  and  mellow 
and  in  prime  condition,  the  trees  should  be  immediately  watered.  It  is 
best  to  run  furrows  at  once  with  a  shovel  plow,  or  other  suitable  imple- 
ment. Have  these  sufficiently  near  the  trees  so  that  the  moisture  may  be 
easily  diffused  around  the  roots  when  the  water  is  turned  on.  If  the  soil 
is  rather  heavy  and  .compact,  it  is  sometimes  best  to  make  a  trench  or 
basin  around  each  tree  to  have  the  soil  properly  saturated.  Use  a  suffici- 
ent volume  of  water  to  run  slowly  along  the  rows,  and  when  it  it  com- 
pletely through,  and  the  ground  around  the  trees  deeply  moistened,  shut 
the  water  off;  never  let  it  remain  and  soak  and  flood  your  grounds. 
Where  a  mixed  orchard  is  to  be  planted,  care  should  be  exercised  to  lay 
it  out  so  that  those  trees  which  require  the  least  water  will  receive  the 


THE    ORCHARD.  37 

least,  and  vice  versa.  Plant  the  cherry  trees,  for  example,  where  they 
will  not  be  subjected  to  too  much  irrigation.  Next  to  them  the  pears  and 
peaches.  Apples  will  need,  on  an  average,  watering  once  every  week  or 
ten  days  the  first  season ;  and  the  second,  perhaps  every  two  or  three 
weeks.  Most  varieties  of  plums  rejoice  in  abundant  moisture,  and  hence 
should  be  freely  watered. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  ground  after  the  soil  has  settled  from 
the  effects  of  the  irrigation,  before  it  has  dried  much,  and  fill  in  around 
the  trees  all  depressions  made  by  the  water  with  fine,  dry  earth.  This 
will  tend  to  prevent  the  soil  from  baking,  as  well  as  to  arrest  evaporation. 
A  slight,  basin-like  depression  should  be  left  around  the  tree,  to  assist  in 
retaining  the  moisture  that  falls  from  the  clouds. 

The  established  orchard  will  require  irrigation  according  to  the  soil, 
location,  cultivation  and  treatment  it  receives.  For  this  reason  each 
orchardist  must  be  his  own  judge  to  a  great  extent.  It  is  safe  to  say 
however,  that  from  one  to  three  thorough  applications  of  water  each  sea- 
son will  be  ample  on  an  average.  The  soil  should  at  all  times  be  kept 
mellow  and  free  from  weeds  in  young  orchards. 

Garden  root  crops,  potatoes  and  the  less  rank  growing  varieties  of 
sweet  corn,  may  be  cultivated  to  advantage  for  a  few  seasons,  but  should 
not  be  planted  too  near  the  trees.  Never  sow  grain  crops  in  the  orchard, 
they  not  only  exhaust  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  robbing  it  of  the  elements 
of  plant  food  needed  to  sustain  the  trees,  but  they  are  enormous  consum- 
ers of  moisture.  It  is  a  rule,  with  rare  exceptions,  now  recognized  by 
leading  cultivators  everywhere,  that  water  should  be  witheld  from  the- 
orchard  after  the  season's  growth  has  been  practically  made,  (which  in 
Colorado  is  by  September  1st)  to  allow  this  growth  to  fully  mature.  But 
the  last  thing  before  the  ground  freezes,  to  give  a  copious  irrigation,  in 
order  to  place  the  trees  in  good  form  for  our  usually  open  winters  and 
uniformly  dry  atmosphere.  This  precaution  is  an  important  one.  as  it 
enables  fruit  stock  to  resist  the  drying-out  process  so  fatal  to  trees  every- 
where. 

MULCHING. 

It  is  always  safe  to  give  the  surface,  for  three  or  four  feet  around  the 
young  tree,  a  dressing  of  coarse  litter,  cut  straw  or  partly  decomposed 
manure,  and  this  should  by  all  means  be  done  if  the  soil  is  of  a  heavy, 
coarse  texture  and  not  in  good  tilth.  Green,  fresh  manure,  howeve^  is 


30  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

not  desirable  and  should  never  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  body  of  the 
tree.  There  is  less  necessity  of  a  dressing  where  the  soil  is  naturally 
warm,  deep  and  mellow,  with  a  moist,  sponge-like  sub-soil.  This  kind  is 
in  a  measure  self-protecting,  because  it  not  only  keeps  the  surface  of  more 
even  temperature,  but  brings  about  a  most  desirable  condition — that  of 
deep  rooting. 

But  where  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  situations  unprotected  from  the 
direct  action  of  the  sun  and  the  elements,  mulching  should  always  be 
applied.  The  advantages  are  that  it  tends  to  guard  against  sudden 
extremes  of  temperature,  to  retain  both  surface  and  capillary  moisture, 


MANNER  OF  PROTECTING  THE  TRUNKS 
OF  TREES. 


Fig.  3. 
Gunny-sack 
or  .Burlap. 


Fig.  4. 
Heavy  paper. 


Fig.  5. 
Boards. 


Fig.  6. 
Stakes  or  lath. 


protects  from  the  at  times  too  powerful  and  long  continued  heat  of  the 
sun,  and  in  other  ways  equalizes  conditions.  Whatever  virtue  there  may 
be  in  the  atmospheric  ammonia  given  off  by  the  rains,  or  in  the  sub- 
stances deposited  by  the  irrigating  waters,  the  mulch  assists  in  utilizing. 
The  generally  accepted  theory  is  then  that  a  good  mulch  both  operates  as 
a  protection  and  a  fertilizer. 

Mulching  does  not  retard  the  blossoming  period  in  trees  as  was  form- 
erly supposed.     It  could  have  this  effect  only  where  the  tree  was  entirely 


THE    ORCHARD.  39 

covered.  In  other  words,  placing  a  protection  merely  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  does  not  control  or  perceptibly  influence  the  top  with  respect 
to  the  development  of  fruit  buds  and  bloom.  This  has  been  abundantly 
demonstrated  in  Colorado.  The  chief  objection  to  the  practice  is  that, 
under  a  system  of  surface  irrigation,  it  tends  to  encourage  shallow  rooting. 
For  this  reason  when  applied  to  trees  for  any  considerable  time  it  must 
be  continued.  Where  sub-soiling,  or  trenching  or  under-irrigation  is 
adopted,  the  objection  would  in  a  measure  be  obviated.  Therefore,  in  a 
dry  climate  with  open  winters  and  almost  perpetual  sunshine,  where  solar 
and  terrestrial  radiation  are  most  marked  and  evaporation  active,  we 
believe  that  the  benefits  of  judicious  mulching  are  far  in  excess  of  its 
disadvantages.  At  the  same  time  this  should  not  supercede  cultivation. 
The  soil  should  be  frequently  stirred  and  the  weeds  kept  down,  always 
using  care  not  to  injure  the  roots  or  body  of  the  tree. 

In  addition  to  this  it  may  be  necessary  to  enrich  the  land  by  an 
annual  application  of  well-rotted  manure  or  compost  carefully  worked  in 
around  the  extremities  of  the  roots.  This  should  always  be  done  if  the 
soil  is  light  or  impoverished  from  any  cause.  Never  let  the  trees  lag  for 
lack  of  plant  food.  This  will  apply  to  old  as  well  as  young  orchards. 

After  the  details  of  planting  are  attended  to,  it  will  pay  the  planter 
to  protect  the  trunk  of  every  tree  in  some  one  of  the  ways  illustrated. 
The  action  of  the  sun's  rays  on  the  South  and  West  sides  of  the  tree  is  often 
very  harmful.  Any  heavy  building  paper  may  be  used  for  making  the 
protection  shown  at  Fig.  4.  If  tarred  paper  is  employed,  there  should  be 
a  space  of  two  or  three  inches  between  it  and  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  a 
still  safer  plan  is  to  line  the  inside  of  this  with  white  paper  of  some  kind. 
Never  place  tarred  paper  directly  in  contact  with  the  bark  of  a  fruit  tree. 
When  properly  used,  it  is  a  valuable  protection  not  only  against  the  sun's 
rays,  but  against  depredations  of  rabbits  and  insect  enemies  of  tree  trunks. 
A  convenient  way  of  protecting  the  cherry,  plum  and  peach  tree  is  by 
wrapping  a  gunny-sack  around  the  trunk  and  winding  it  with  twine.  A 
prominent  fruit  grower  of  the  East  protects  his  trees  from  mice,  rabbits, 
etc.,  by  cutting  fine  wire  netting,  such  as  is  used  for  window  screens,  into 
strips  18  inches  broad,  then  into  lengths  to  surround  the  trees,  letting 
them  lap  over  considerably.  He  says  this  will  also  protect  the  tree  from 
the  borer.* 


*Trees  are  often  protected  by  simply  wrapping  them  with  light  paper  or  straw, 
or  with  strips  of  bark  of  various  kinds  ;  but  it  is  better  not  to  have  any  protection 
remain  too  long  in  contact  with  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 


4O  HORTICULTURE   BY    IRRIGATION. 

WIND-BREAKS    OR    SHELTER-BELTS. 

Plant  by  all  means,  either  in  advance  of  or  simultaneously  with  the 
orchard,  a  shelter  belt  of  trees.  Rapid,  upright  growers  should  be  set  for 
this  purpose,  either  all  round  the  orchard  or  on  the  sides  from  which 
come  the  prevailing  winds.  The  Lombardy  poplar,  where  it  does  not  kill 
back,  makes  an  excellent  wind-break.  The  western  or  gray  willow  is  about 
as  good,  and  still  hardier.  The  cottonwood  makes  a  stronger  growth  than 
anything  that  can  be  planted,  and  hence  a  quicker  protection,  but  it  is  a 
gross  feeder  and  should  not  be  set  within  several  rods  of  an  orchard.  The 
black  and  honey  locust  are  also  used. 

Some  of  the  strong  growing  crabs  are  also  desirable.  For  an  inside  row 
of  a  shelter-belt  (I  prefer  this  word,  because  it  means  more  than  simple 
protection  from  wind),  a  row  of  hardy  plum  trees  may  be  planted.  Ever- 
greens are  good  where  they  can  be  cheaply  obtained.  Mr.  Grimes,  the 
well-known  Denver  nurseryman,  "thinks  a  wind-break  is  as  incomplete 
without  an  evergreen  lining  as  a  bird's  nest  is  without  a  lining."  Here, 
in  Northern  Colorado,  I  would  surround  the  entire  orchard  with  a  shelter- 
belt,  but  protection  is  most  needed  on  the  North  and  West  sides — not  alone 
for  the  teees,  but  to  protect  the  fruit  buds  and  fruit  from  injury  by  occa- 
sional prolonged  and  drying  winds. 

HEELING    IN. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  procure  fruit  stock  in  fall  and  trench  in  until 
spring.  This  practice  is  growing  in  favor,  and  one  nurseryman  of  large 
experience  declares  that  trees  treated  in  this  way  not  only  retain  the  full 
vitality  they  have  in  autumn,  but  are  actually  worth  twenty-five  per  cent 
more  than  those  taken  up  in  spring. 

To  heel  in,  put  trees  in  a  sloping  trench,  with  roots  at  deepest  end  (H  to 
2  feet  deep).  Spread  out  roots,  and  cover  thoroughly  and  closely  with 
fine,  moist  earth  and  fill  in  trench,  covering  tops  of  trees  with  about  six 
inches  of  dirt,  leaving  mound  that  will  turn  water.  Always  bury  on  a 
well-drained  site.  We  usually  wet  roots  before  trenching. 

Should  trees  arrive  dry  and  shriveled  by  reason  of  delay  or  from  other 
cause  during  shipment,  if  water  is  convenient  put  them  in  root  and 
branch,  and  let  them  remain  for  several  days  in  water,  or  bury  them  deep 
in  moist  earth.  This  practice  will  usually  restore  the  stock  fully.  If 
frozen,  do  not  unpack  on  arrival,  but  place  in  cellar  or  other  cool  place, 
free  from  frost,  and  let  them  remain  until  entirely  thawed  out. 


THE   ORCHARD.  4! 

The  following  extracts  are  from  a  paper  read  recently  by  Dr.  Alex- 
ander Shaw,  before  the  Northern  Colorado  Horticultural  Society,  at  Fort 
Collins.  The  special  subject  was  the  practicability  of  apple  growing  in 
Northern  Colorado,  but  it  will  be  seen  that  the  paper  covers  a  general 
scope : — 

For  the  last  four  consecutive  seasons  I  have  made  a  toui  of  inspection 
of  the  State  of  Colorado,  for  about  six  weeks,  for  the  express  purpose  of 
being  able  to  respond  to  this  inquiry,  not  only^as  to  North,  but  also  as  to 
the  South.  The  State  is  a  State  of  magnificent  distances,  in  range  of  area 
from  North  to  South  about  600  miles.  The  area  of  the  State  East  of  the 
Eocky  Mountain  range  is  about  47,000  square  miles,  aggregating  about 
30,080,000  acres.  Altitude  does  not  limit  the  possibility  of  apple  growing. 
I  have  found  the  Ben  Davis  and  Oldenberg  apple  growing  at  an  altitude 
of  near  8,000  feet,  also  at  4,500,  all  seemingly  alike  matured. 

The  meteorological  influences  necessary  to  grow  fruit  are  not  gov- 
erned by  altitude  alone,  but  the  contour  of  the  ground  and  surroundings 
play  an  important  part.  The  era  of  fruit  growing  in  Colorado  dates  back 
to  about  twenty-four  years.  William  Lee,  of  Jefferson  county,  near  Clear 
Creek,  is  probably  the  pioneer  fruit  culturist  of  Colorado.  He  hauled  his 
first  stock  by  mule  team  in  1863  from  Iowa  City,  Iowa ;  1865  was  the 
date  of  the  next  fruit  growers'  venture.  George  Webster,  M.  L.  McCaslin 
and  others  in  the  St.  Vrain  Valley  purchased  their  stock  from  the  Atchi- 
son  nursery,  Kansas,  which  were  hauled  by  ox  teams.  "About  the  same 
time  Jesse  Frazer,  of  Florence,  Fremont  County,  hauled  his  first  stock  by 
ox  team  from  Quincy,  Illinois.  Frazer  has  been  pre-eminently  the  most 
successful  apple  grower  in  the  State,  having  the  largest  plantation  of  aged 
trees  in  the  State,  being  about  three  thousand  trees,  which  produced  a 
crop  of  about  ten  thousand  bushels  for  the  year  1886.  From  the  several 
points,  as  above  named,  have  radiated  fruit  planting  with  a  varied  success. 
There  is  no  meteorological  cause  preventive  of  fruit  culture  in  Colorado 
but  what  is  found  in  any  of  the  States  East  of  us. 

The  weather  records  of  the  government  show  less  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  and  more  bright,  sunshine  days  in  Colorado,  than  any  other 
State  of  the  Union.  The  mean  line  of  temperature,  as  indicated  by  our 
signal  stations,  from  N«rth  to  South,  passes  through  Denver.  As  to  the 
climatic  causes  preventive  of  fruit  growing,  we  are  favorably  situated. 
At  the  present  date  fruit  growing  has  been  tested  successfully  over  an  area 
from  North  to  South  of  about  500  miles.  Each  locality  within  that  area 


42  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

has  its  off  years,  with  more  or  less  success.  Jefferson,  Boulder  and  Fre- 
mont have  been  testing  fruit  culture,  both  as  to  small  and  tree  fruits,  for 
over  twenty  years,  yet  one  has  had  its  barren  years  from  climatic  causes 
as  often  as  the  other.  For  instance,  one  orchard  of  aged  trees  for  the  year 
1886,  at  Canon  City,  failed,  while  in  the  Longmont  neighborhood  they 
were  pre-eminently  a  success,  yet  for  the  current  year  of  1887  the  fruitful- 
ness  was  reversed.  Frazer's  orchard  in  1886  produced  10,000  bushels,  yet  in 
1887  had  not  more  than  fifty  bushels.  With  the  conditions  precedent  to 
successful  fruit  growing,  such  as  water,  at  command,  the  right  kind  of 
soil,  proper  care  and  culture,  I  know  no  reason  why  fruit  growing  in 
Northern  Colorado  cannot  be  as  successfully  done  as  in  the  Southern 
counties,  except  some  of  the  stone  fruits,  such  as  peaches,  apricots,  nec~ 
tarines,  and  some  of  the  tender  varieties  of  cherries,  and  possibly  plums. 
The  better  varieties  of  plums  and  cherries  in  Northern  Colorado  are  at 
present  on  probation.  Pears,  in  many  sections  of  the  State,  at  proper  age, 
are  a  success,  and  I  know  no  reason  why  they  should  not  rank  with  apples 
as  a  success.  The  home  of  the  stone  fruits,  as  above  named,  in  Colorado, 
will  be  in  the  extreme  South  and  in  valleys  West  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
range  on  the  tributaries  of  the  Gunnison  and  Grand  Rivers. 

It  is  possible  that  peach  trains  in  the  near  future  will  run  from 
Western  Colorado  as  well  as  Salt  Lake.  The  altitude  (4,500  feet)  and 
conditions  of  peach  growing  are  about  the  same. 

The  successful  fruit  culturist  of  any  country  must  study  and  practice 
the  conditions  precedent  to  success  in  his  own  locality.  At  all  points 
where  water  is  at  command  and  soil  appropriate  small  fruits  succeed,  and 
as  a  rule  tree  fruits  are  equally  a  success  where  proper  selections  as  to 
kinds  are  made.  The  greatest  bar  to  success  in  Colorado  is  our  May 
frosts.  Early  bloomers  as  a  rule  should  be  avoided.  The  crab  family  of 
apples  are  more  uncertain  than  standards,  on  account  of  precocious 
blooming.  In  my  observations  in  fruit  culture  in  Colorado,  I  have  been 
most  interested  in  apple  and  pear  culture. 

I  have  noted  about  two  hundred  varieties  of  apples  and  thirty-one  of' 
pears.  I  here  make  a  note.  As  a  rule  I  know  of  no  country  that  will  grow 
and  mature  good  wheat  and  a  Hubbard  squash  that  will  not  make  a  good 
apple  country.  If  this  notation  be  true,  as  apply^d  to  Colorado,  then  has 
the  possibility  of  apple  culture  from  the  extreme  northern  to  the  southern 
line  been  established  beyond  any  doubt. 

The  apple  is  the  king  of  fruits  and  numbers  more  kinds  than  any 
other  known  fruit— probably  3,000. 


THE    ORCHARD.  43 

In  a  majority  of  the  orch&rds  of  the  State  that  I  have  seen  trees  are 
not  more  than  fifteen  feet  apart,  and  some  even  twelve.  I  have  not  met  a 
man  whose  orchard  is  ten  years  old  and  twelve  feet  apart,  but  would  pre- 
fer thirty.  In  this  connection  there  is  another  error  to  be  regretted,  and 
that  is  to  encumber  an  apple  orchard  with  small  fruits,  such  as  currants, 
gooseberries,  blackberries  and  raspberries.  The  ground  should  be  dedi- 
cated to  trees  alone  and  they  not  closer  than  thirty  by  thirty  feet. 

My  orchard  grounds  contain  ten  acres  in  a  square  farm.  I  have 
planted  as  a  wind-break  black  locust  thirty  feet  apart  on  the  outer  line  of 
the  grounds.  On  the  North  and  West  lines  I  have  set,  fifteen  feet  apart, 
three  varieties  of  the  best  native  plums  I  could  get.  The  line  of  plum 
trees  alternate  the  space  between  the  locust  trees,  and  set  so  as  to  give 
fifteen  feet  to  the  first  row  of  apple  trees.  The  habits  of  growth  of 
the  locust  and  plum  trees  are  low-headed,  and  for  this  reason  I  conclude 
will  make  a  good  wind-break.  This  arrangement  leaves  space  for  setting 
twenty-one  rows  thirty  feet  apart  running  East  and  West,  and  twenty  rows 
North  and  South,  aggregating  443  apple  trees.  I  have  made  my  selection 
of  trees  so  as  to  give  me  a  succession  of  fruit  the  year  round  of  winter, 
fall  and  summer  varieties.  As  the  most  profitable  kinds  I  note  them  in  the 
following  order  :  Winter  long  keepers,  first ;  fall,  second  ;  and  summer, 
third.  In  locating  my  trees  I  have  arranged  so  as  to  have  the  hardier 
varieties  North  of  the  more  tender,  but  in  no  instance  have  I  named  a 
tree  I  have  not  seen  bear  fruit  and  do  well  in  Colorado. 

A  summary  will  show  my  orchard  to  contain  221  winter  trees,  167 
fall,  31  summer,  aggregating  23  kinds. 

I  believe  success  of  orchard  culture  will  be  best  secured  by  an  entire 
dedication  of  the  ground  to  growing  trees. 

To  my  mind  it  is  somewhat  questionable  for  the  best  success  in 
orchard  culture  to  grow  any  kind  of  crops  on  orchard  grounds,  and 
especially  such  crops  as  are  exhaustive  of  plant  food.  The  rootlets  of 
apple  trees  soon  take  possession  of  the  orchard  grounds.  The  rootlets  of 
a  full  grown  apple  tree  are  said  to  extend  thirty  feet  from  its  trunk,  and 
as  a  matter  of  course  must  be  impoverished  by  the  growth  of  other  crops. 

Water  is  the  solvent  of  all  vegetable  food,  and  its  proper  application 
is  a  question  of  paramount  importance  to  orchard  culture.  Happily  for 
the  fruit  culturists  of  Colorado,  in  most  localities  you  can  have  water  at 
will,  which  is  an  advantage  that  will  discount  the  contingencies  of  natural 
rainfall.  Excessive  rainfall  and  scorching  drouth  are  not  necessarily 


44 


HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 


factors  in  Colorado  fruit  growing.  The  questions,  how  to  irrigate  and 
when  to  irrigate,  are  questions  of  deep  importance,  and  I  hope  will 
receive  a  good  share  of  the  time  of  this  meeting.  With  an  enlightened 
practical  experience  on  this  water  question,  a  country  the  proper  contour 


NORTH 


t       t       t 


i       § 


1 f 


M     f 


i    it 


Jf    f 


i 


t    i- 


1; 

"E 


Orchard  Irrigation. 
a,  canal ;  b,  checks  in  canal ;  c,  gates  at  the  head  of  each  row. 


which  is  adapted  to  the  right  application  of  water  at  will,  and  living  on 
the  direct  line  of  the  mean  temperature  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent, the  Colorado  horticulturists  have  a  bright  future  before  them. 


THE   ORCHARD. 


45 


THE    PLUM. 

This  fruit  is  certain  to  be  a  success  in  Cokrado,  and  is  each  year 
gaining  in  popularity.  The  plum  of  good  quality  is  always  in  good  de- 
mand, and  is  not  only  a  wholesome  fruit,  but  is  profitable  when  exempt 
from  attacks  of  insect  enemies  and  the  like.  On  our  Gardenside  grounds, 
for  several  years  in  succession,  plum  trees  have  fruited  abundantly.  We 


w/. 


Plum  tree  in  bearing  at  Gardenside. 
(From  photograph.) 

have  just  been  among  the  plum  trees  to  see  the  promise  of  fruit  for  this 
season,  and  find  indications  most  favorable.  It  succeeds  with  us  both  on 
light,  sandy  soil  and  on  that  which  is  heavy  and  compact. 

The  tender  Eastern  varieties  have  not  been  tested  here,  and  probably 
would  not  succeed  in  our  northern  counties.     But  the  hardier  sorts  of 


46  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

Chickesaws  and  natives  (P.  Americana)  seem  quite  at  home.  Of  the 
nearly  fifty  varieties  at  Gardenside,  all  seem  to  be  doing  well,  but  not  more 
than  a  dozen  of  these  varieties  have  yet  reached  the  age  of  fruiting.  In 
addition  to  the  new  hardy  sorts  like  Shipper's  Pride,  Moore's  Arctic, 
Mariana,  Ogon,  Boton,  Primus  Simoni,  Wolf,  Rollingstone,  etc.,  we  are 
testing  seedlings  of  our  own,  and  many  natives  of  Colorado.  Some  of  the 
latter  are  worthy  of  quite  extended  trial,  and  we  recommend  fruit  growers 
to  be  on  the  look-out  for  these  natives,  and  whenever  a  promising  one  is 
found  to  give  it  a  trial. 

The  varieties  that  have  so  far  fruited  heavily  in  Northern  Colorado 
are  Forest  Garden,  De  Soto,  Forest  Rose,  Weaver,  Quaker,  and,  in  special 
localities,  Miner  and  Wild  Goose. 

The  illustration  on  preceding  page  shows  a  plum  tree  in  bearing  on 
our  grounds. 

A  good  place  for  a  plum  orchard  is  either  within  or  near  by  a  hen 
yard,  if  the  curculio  is  troublesome.  Give  the  trees  an  abundance  of 
moisture,  and  keep  the  soil  well  enriched.  If  trees  are  so  heavily  loaded 
as  to  endanger  the  limbs,  thin  out  the  fruit,  and  thereby  increase  the  size 
and  improve  the  quality  of  that  remaining.  If  several  varieties  are 
grown,  plant  closely,  as  some  are  likely  to  need  fertilizing  while  in  bloom. 
Large,  vigorous  trees  frequently  fail  to  fruit  from  lack  of  fertilization.  In 
all  localities  where  the  growing  season  is  rather  short,  always  plant  the 
early  maturing  kinds.  Where  the  plum  curculio  is  troublesome,  it  may 
be  destroyed  or  driven  off  either  by  spraying  the  trees  with  well-diluted 
coal  tar  water  at  two  or  three  different  stages  of  fruit  development  (from  the 
time  it  is  the  size  of  B  shot,  until  it  is  perhaps  two-thirds  grown),  or  by 
the  use  of  arsenical  poisons,  like  Paris  Green  and  London  Purple,  (1)  as 
soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell  in  spring,  (2)  two  weeks  after  the  petals 
have  fallen.  Other  similar  preparations  would,  doubtless,  be  effective, 
but  care  should  be  exercised  to  use  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right  pro- 
portion. 

See  paper  by  Prof.  Cassiday. 

APRICOT,    PEACH    AND    NECTARINE. 

These  fruits  are  so  similar  in  character  and  habits  of  growth  that  the 
same  general  rules  of  culture  will  apply  to  all.  The  only  important  dis- 
tinction between  the  apricot  and  the  other  two  named,  is  that  the  former 
not  only  has  fruit  and  wood  buds  mixed  on  the  shoots  of  one  year's 


THE 

growth,  but  also'  has  little  fruit  spurs,  like  the  plum,  which  may  be 
renewed  by  shortening.  The  nectarine  is  simply  classed  as  a  smooth- 
skinned  peach,  but  is  usually  rather  more  delicate  and  difficult  to  raise. 

The  peach  and  apricot,  particularly  the  hardy  varieties  of  the  latter, 
promise  to  succeed  over  wide  sections  of  the  West.  Some  of  the  Russian 
varieties  at  Gardenside,  are,  at  this  writing,  heavily  loaded  with  fruit 
buds.  The  so-called  iron-clad  peach  trees  are  being  tested  on  our  grounds, 
said  to  be  as  hardy  as  the  Ben  Davis  apple  tree.  But  time  is  needed  to 
sustain  this  claim. 

For  points  on  the  culture  of  the  fruits  under  this  heading  readers  are 
referred  to  the  paper  of  C.  W.  Steele,  Esq.,  on  "Peach  and  Apricot 
Culture  "  and  to  the  notes  from  Mr.  Wade. 

PEACH  AND  APRICOT  CULTURE  IN  MESA  COUNTY,  COLORADO, 
BY  C.  W.  STEELE. 

Given  a  suitable  climate  for  the  producing  of  semi-tropical  fruits,  the 
water  supply  under  absolute  control,  a  good  market,  easy  of  access,  and 
you  have  the  conditions  of  successful  fruit  growing  to  make  glad  the 
heart  of  the  horticulturist.  The  portion  of  Mesa  County  adapted  to  the 
perfecting  of  the  finer  fruits  is  comprised  in  the  valleys  of  the  Grand 
River,  White  Water,  Kannah,  Roan,  and  Plateau  Creeks. 

The  first  planting  of  peach  trees  in  what  is  now  Mesa  County  was  in 
the  spring  of  1883.  These  trees  bore  fruit  the  next  year  and  abundantly 
during  the  season  of  1885  and  1886,  making  three  "peach  years"  in  suc- 
cession. This  year  (1887)  owing  to  the  late  severe  frosts,  peaches  have 
proven  a  partial  failure.  Only  a  few  orchards  in  especially  favored 
localities  having  fruited. 

Such  encouragement  has  been  given  the  fruit  growers,  that  peach  and 
apricot  orchards  from  a  few  trees  to  eighty  acres  in  extent  are  now  com- 
mon, and  the  Mesa  County  horticulturist  looks  forward  with  confidence  to 
the  time  when  the  markets  of  Colorado  will  be  largely  supplied  from  the 
orchards  of  Mesa  County. 

The  best  time  to  plant  is  a  mooted  question,  but  our  experience 
inclines  us  to  favor  fall  planting,  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  November. 
We  have  never  lost  a  peach  or  apricot  tree  from  winter  killing,  and  the 
trees  make  a  much  larger  growth  the  first  season  than  when  planted  in 
the  spring.  But  above  all  we  earnestly  recommend  would-be  horticultur- 
ists, don't  procrastinate,  don't  wait  from  fall  to  spring  and  spring  to  fall, 


48  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

but  prepare  the  ground  thoroughly  and  plant  the  trees,  be  it  fall  or 
spring ;  mark  the  rows  eighteen  by  twenty  feet  apart,  set  the  tree  about 
three  inches  deeper  than  it  grew  in  the  nursery,  after  trimming  all  broken 
roots  with  a  sharp  knife.  Fill  in  finely  pulverized  earth  around  the  roots, 
firm  well,  making  good  use  of  your  feet  while  planting,  prune  severely 
and  irrigate  directly  after  planting.  Give  good  cultivation.  Potatoes  or 
other  low  growing  hoed  crops  may  be  grown  between  the  rows,  but  the 
branches  need  the  sunlight.  The  shade  of  growing  corn  will  injure  the 
trees.  We  do  not  usually  irrigate  during  the  growing  season  later  than 
the  first  week  in  September,  giving  the  wood  a  chance  to  mature,  but 
always  irrigate  for  winter  after  the  middle  of  November.  Among  the 
many  desirable  varieties  for  planting  we  would  specially  recommend  the 
Crawfords,  Arkansas  Traveler,  Alexander,  Foster,  Hale's  Large,  Early 
York,  Old  Nixons,  Wheatland  and  Wager.  For  apricots,  Breda,  Moore- 
park  and  Early  Golden.  The  Russian  varieties  will  no  doubt  prove 
desirable  in  higher  altitudes. 

Much  loss  and  dissatisfaction  is  caused  by  planting  inferior  varieties, 
or  such  as  are  untrue  to  name.  Buy  only  from  responsible  parties.  Send 
your  order  to  some  reliable  nursery  direct  (Colorado  preferred)  or  through 
some  party  whom  you  personally  know  to  be  trustworthy.  One-year-old 
trees  are  to  be  preferred  for  transplanting.  The  area  of  the  profitable 
culture  of  fruit  may  be  greatly  extended,  and  to  the  Mesa  County  horti- 
culturist the  future  is  specially  full  of  promise. 

CHERRIES. 

The  chief  points  to  be  regarded  in  the  culture  of  the  cherry  are  to 
avoid  all  conditions  that  are  calculated  to  force  a  Ftrong  growth,  and  to 
plant  on  sites  that  will  tend  to  retard  development  in  the  spring.  Fruit 
buds  are  often  destroyed  by  late  frosts,  when  the  tree  itself  is  quite  hardy. 
Another  difficulty  with  the  cherry  tree  in  the  West  is  bark  bursting. 

This  suggests  the  desirableness  of  branching  the  trees  near  the 
ground.  In  fact  this  seems  to  be  the  better  form  of  growing  the  cherry 
tree  in  all  localities  subject  to  severe  changes.  The  bush  form  is  adopted 
with  great  success  in  different  parts  of  Russia,  where  extremes  of  temper- 
ature are  often  violent  and  cold  intense.  The  cherry  is  one  of  the  leading 
fruits  of  that  country.  We  are  heading  many  of  our  trees  near  the 
ground,  but  testing  several  varieties  in  different  ways. 


THE    ORCHARD.  49 

Plant,  as  a  rule,  on  rather  light,  well-drained  soil,  and  on  a  North 
aspect,  if  available.  Water  sparingly,  and  cultivate  with  a  view  of  in- 
ducing a  moderate  and  definite  annual  growth. 

THE    PEAR. 

Some  portions  of  Colorado  seem  especially  well  adapted  to  the  growth 
of  the  pear.  It  will  be  successful  in  most  localities  where  the  apple 
thrives,  and  being  of  the  same  genus  (although  not  quite  so  hardy),  re- 
quires substantially  the  same  soil  and  general  treatment.  In  the  Northern 
tier  of  Counties  in  Colorado,  except  in  more  favored  localities,  the  pear 
has  not  yet  proven  a  success,  but  certain  varieties  are  likely  to  be  found — 
perhaps  among  the  Russian  sorts — that  will  adapt  themselves  to  our 
climate. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

The  quince,  mulberry,  berberry,  etc.,  are  being  tested  in  different 
parts  of  Colorado,  and  some  varieties  are  doing  quite  well.  The  Russian 
mulberry  is  hardy,  and  fruits  abundantly,  but  it  is  not  of  particular  value 
as  a  fruit  tree. 


SMALL   FRUITS. 


Much  that  has  been  said  concerning  the  culture  of  orchard  trees  will 
apply  equally  to  small  fruits.  For  the  best  results,  the  ground  should  be 
deeply  plowed,  or  spaded  and  heavily  manured.  In  fact,  intense  culture 
is  the  secret  of  success  with  nearly  all  small  fruits.  Place  the  ground, 
then,  in  the  best  possible  shape,  always  keeping  in  view  the  importance 
of  convenience  in  irrigating.  If  possible,  water  should  be  near  at  hand  at 
time  of  planting. 

Always  set  this  stock,  if  in  any  quantity,  with  a  view  to  horse  culti- 
vation, and  use  the  horse  freely,  too.  Spring  planting  is  usually  preferred, 
although  excellent  results  have  been  secured  by  fall  setting  of  such  fruits 
as  the  raspberry,  blackberry,  currant,  and  even  the  strawberry,  if  not  set 
later  than  the  10th  of  September  and  well  cared  for.  In  all  cases  of  fall 
planting,  mulch  before  winter  sets  in.  Under  a  complete  system  of  irri- 
gation, with  care  in  performing  the  work  as  it  should  be  done,  there  is  no 
reason  why  many  things  may  not  succeed  set  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

Small  fruits,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  should  have  constant  and 
uniform  moisture  during  the  period  of  fruit  development.  Some  kinds 
will  need  more  than  others,  and  this  is  true  of  soils.  Once  a  week,  during 
the  fruiting  season,  would  be  a  fair  average,  perhaps,  with  all  small  fruits, 
excepting  the  grape. 

.As  will  be  seen  by  reading  the  correspondence  elsewhere  from  fruit 
growers  of  prominence  in  our  own  State,  some  of  them  water,  after  each 
picking,  "their  berry  vines  and  plants."  This  is  probably  the  general 
rule,  and  is  often  necessary;  otherwise  the  crop  would  be  cut  short,  and 
the  berries  deteriorate  in  size  and  appearance,  if  not  in  flavor.  If  plants 
have  been  well  cultivated  and  heavily  mulched,  they  will  require  less 
water,  and  bear  finer  fruit,  than  those  neglected  in  this  respect. 

The  small  fruits,  like  the  orchard  trees,  should  be  watered  late  in  the 
season,  before  they  "go  into  winter  quarters,"  and  likewise  should  not  re- 
ceive much  irrigation  after  September. 


SMALL   FRUITS.  5  I 

If  the  winter  promises  to  be  excessively  dry,  canes  and  plants  should 
be  covered  deeper  than  otherwise. 

STRAWBERRIES. 

It  is  a  familiar  saying  that  "  the  Lord  might  have  made  a  better  fruit 
than  the  strawberry,  but  He  never  did."  By  general  consent  it  is  the 
king  of  small  fruits,  and  prime  berries  are  always  in  demand  at  a  good 
figure.  Of  all  small  fruits  this  most  delights  in  rich  soil,  abundant  moist- 
ture,  and  good  cultivation  of  course.  The  average  soil  will  do  if  properly 
enriched,  but  different  varieties  are  partial  to  different  soils.  The 
Jucunda,  for  example,  is^a  very  indifferent  bearer  on  light,  sandy  soil,  but 
is  hard  to  beat  on  soil  that  is  heavy  and  rich.  Some  kinds,  like  the 


X 

Well  Set  Strawberry  Plant. 

Crescent,  Wilson,  Cumberland  and  Manchester,  will  do  well  nearly  every- 
where. 

But  the  general  purpose  soil  that  will  satisfy  reasonably  well  every 
variety,  is  a  deep,  rich,  moist  loam,  The  matted  row  system  is  the  one  in 
most  favor  in  the  West ;  that  is,  setting  the  plants  a  foot  or  so  apart,  with 
a  space  of  three  or  three  and  a  half  feet  between  the  rows,  and  letting  the 
plants  grow  together  in,  but  not  between  the  rows.  This  gives  ample 
space  for  cultivating,  as  well  as  irrigation.  The  tendency  is  for  beds  set 
in  this  way  to  exhaust  themselves  early  by  making  too  many  runners. 
Hence  they  should  be  well  supplied  with  .plant  food. 

The  narrow  row  plan  is  a  good  one  for  most  gardeners,  but  requires 
more  care.  In  this  the  rows  are  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  apart,  with 
plants  one  foot  from  each  other  in  the  row  and  the  runners  kept  off. 


54  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

will  do  more  harm  at  this  time  of  year  than  all  other  causes  combined. 
When  one  of  these  occurs,  if  possible  to  do  so,  always  turn  on  the  water 
along  the  rows  of  berry  canes.  Some  of  these  days,  with  an  improved 
signal  service,  fruit  growers  may  be  enabled  to  avoid  the  solicitude  con- 
nected with  this  phase  of  small  fruit  culture.  Better  still,  when  a  hardier 
race  of  fruits  shall  be  grown  that  will  defy  the  vicissitudes  rof  wind  and 
weather.  Still,  thanks  to  the  "reserve"  buds,  our  growers  have  good 
average  crops  of  these  berries  one  year  with  another.  The  depth  of  soil 
usually  put  on  the  canes  in  covering  is  from  one  and  one-half  to  two 
inches.  It  is  well  to  place  over  this  depth  an  inch  or  so  of  coarse  manure 
in  the  early  winter.  Some  cover  to  the  depth  of  four  inches  to  retard 
the  growth  in  the  spring. 

If  summer  pruning  is  done,  or  "  pinching  back,"  as  it  is  called,  it 
should  be  attended  to  in  May,  or  early  June,  when  the  canes  are  in  full 
vigor  of  growth,  and  at  the  hight  of  four  and  one-half  to  five  feet.  This 
will  cause  lateral  branches  to  appear  that  should  in  turn  be  pinched  back 
when  they  have  made  a  growth  of  one  foot  or  so.  The  chief  aim  sought 
by  this  is  to  develop  fruit  buds  by  checking  the  growth  of  wood.  If  done 
at  the  right  time  this  result  may  be  accomplished.  If  attempted  when 
the  canes  have  practically  made  their  growth  later  on,  buds,  which  ought 
to  remain  dormant,  will  be  started  into  a  growth  that  cannot  mature 
before  the  succeeding  winter  sets  in.  For  this  reason  and  the  additional 
one,  that  the  practice  tends  to  make  the  canes  stocky,  and  more  difficult 
to  lay  down,  I  have  never  felt  like  recommending  much  summer  pruning. 

During  the  hight  of  the  fruiting  season  the  blackberry,  raspberry 
and  strawberry  should  be  picked  daily,  if  possible. 

The  dewberry,  or  running  blackberry,  is  succeeding  admirably  in 
certain  localities,  and  some  kinds  of  this  popular  fruit  are  likely  to  be 
found  adapted  to  general  culture  in  the  West.  It  is  well  worth  extended 
trial. 

For  best  varieties  see  list  of  fruits  given  elsewhere. 

GRAPES. 

Whatever  difference  may  exist  among  growers  as  to  the  "  perfect " 
soil  for  grapes,  or  the  manner  of  cultivation  and  of  pruning,  it  will 
scarcely  be  questioned  that  the  climatic  influences  of  this  portion  of  the 
United  States  are  very  favorable  both  to  vine  and  fruit  development. 
This  in  connection  with  the  ability  to  supply  moisture  whenever  needed, 


SMALL   FRUITS.  55 

and  an  abundance  of  sunshine,  comes  about  as  near  the  ideal  condition  as 
could  well  be  named.  "  Wherever  we  find  the  ague  an  habitual  guest 
with  the  inhabitants  we  need  not  look  for  healthy  grape  vines,  but  high 
table  lands  and  hillsides,  with  their  dry  atmosphere  and  cool  breezes,  and 
on  gentle  slopes — these  are  among  the  best  locations  for  the  culture  of  the 
grape,"  says  an  authority.  Again  he  says  :  "  A  good  soil  for  a  vineyard 
should  be  a  dry,  calcareous  loam,  sufficiently  deep,  (say  three  feet,)  loose 
and  friable,  draining  itself  readily.  A  sandy,  yet  moderately  rich  soil 
is  better  adapted  to  most  varieties  than  heavy  clay.  New  soils,  both 
granite  and  limestone,  made  up  by  nature  of  decomposed  stone  and  leaf 
mould,  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  that  have  long  been  in  cultivation, 
unless  these  have  been  put  in  clever,  and  rested  a  few  years.  If  you 
have  such  a  location  and  soil,  seek  no  further,  ask  no  chemist  to  analyze 
its  ingredients,  but  go  at  once  to  preparing  the  soil." 

The  chief  points  to  be  observed  right  here  are,  that  all  varieties  do 
not  succeed  equally  well  on  any  one  soil,  nor  under  the  same  treatment 
with  respect  to  irrigation.  Neither  can  the  same  rules  apply,  except  in  a 
general  sense,  with  reference  to  pruning.  For  this  reason  no  discussion 
of  details  will  here  be  attempted.  All  agree  that  the  soil  should  be 
deeply  plowed  or  spaded,  well  drained,  with  a  sponge-like  sub-soil  that 
holds  moisture  well,  and  should  be  of  a  uniform  texture  and  richness  so 
far  as  possible. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  all  parts  of  Colorado,  barring  altitude,  soils 
may  be  found  upon  which  the  grape  will  thrive.  Those  localities  that 
seem  particularly  well  adapted  to  its  culture  are  situations  like  much  of 
Fremont  and  Boulder  Counties,  where  the  soil  is  largely  of  decomposed 
granite  and  limestone,  and  where  a  modifying  influence  is  exerted  on 
local  surroundings  by  the  presence  of  the  foot-hills. 

IRRIGATION. 

Twice,  at  most,  during  fruitage,  would  meet  the  requirements  of  this 
on  some  soils ;  while  on  the  light,  sandy  soil,  with  quick  drainage  (where 
those  kinds  inclined  to  be  late  in  maturing  are  often  planted),  once  a 
week  might  not  be  excessive.  With  Concord  and  Brighton  vines  on  this 
kind  of  soil,  I  have  found  it  necessary  to  use  water  freely  at  this  period. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  advise  the  use  of  little  or  no  water  for  the  grape  in  our 
climate,  without  any  regard  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  drainage.  I 
say  again,  that  where  one  application  of  water  might  be  sufficient  on  a 


54  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

will  do  more  harm  at  this  time  of  year  than  all  other  causes  combined. 
When  one  of  these  occurs,  if  possible  to  do  so,  always  turn  on  the  water 
along  the  rows  of  berry  canes.  Some  of  these  days,  with  an  improved 
signal  service,  fruit  growers  may  be  enabled  to  avoid  the  solicitude  con- 
nected with  this  phase  of  small  fruit  culture.  Better  still,  when  a  hardier 
race  of  fruits  shall  be  grown  that  will  defy  the  vicissitudes  rof  wind  and 
weather.  Still,  thanks  to  the  "reserve"  buds,  our  growers  have  good 
average  crops  of  these  berries  one  year  with  another.  The  depth  of  soil 
usually  put  on  the  canes  in  covering  is  from  one  and  one-half  to  two 
inches.  It  is  well  to  place  over  this  depth  an  inch  or  so  of  coarse  manure 
in  the  early  winter.  Some  cover  to  the  depth  of  four  inches  to  retard 
the  growth  in  the  spring. 

If  summer  pruning  is  done,  or  "  pinching  back,"  as  it  is  called,  it 
should  be  attended  to  in  May,  or  early  June,  when  the  canes  are  in  full 
vigor  of  growth,  and  at  the  hight  of  four  and  one-half  to  five  feet.  This 
will  cause  lateral  branches  to  appear  that  should  in  turn  be  pinched  back 
when  they  have  made  a  growth  of  one  foot  or  so.  The  chief  aim  sought 
by  this  is  to  develop  fruit  buds  by  checking  the  growth  of  wood.  If  done 
at  the  right  time  this  result  may  be  accomplished.  If  attempted  when 
the  canes  have  practically  made  their  growth  later  on,  buds,  which  ought 
to  remain  dormant,  will  be  started  into  a  growth  that  cannot  mature 
before  the  succeeding  winter  sets  in.  For  this  reason  and  the  additional 
one,  that  the  practice  tends  to  make  the  canes  stocky,  and  more  difficult 
to  lay  down,  I  have  never  felt  like  recommending  much  summer  pruning. 

During  the  hight  of  the  fruiting  season  the  blackberry,  raspberry 
and  strawberry  should  be  picked  daily,  if  possible. 

The  dewberry,  or  running  blackberry,  is  succeeding  admirably  in 
certain  localities,  and  some  kinds  of  this  popular  fruit  are  likely  to  be 
found  adapted  to  general  culture  in  the  West.  It  is  well  worth  extended 
trial. 

For  best  varieties  see  list' of  fruits  given  elsewhere. 

GRAPES. 

Whatever  difference  may  exist  among  growers  as  to  the  "  perfect " 
soil  for  grapes,  or  the  manner  of  cultivation  and  of  pruning,  it  will 
scarcely  be  questioned  that  the  climatic  influences  of  this  portion  of  the 
United  States  are  very  favorable  both  to  vine  and  fruit  development. 
This  in  connection  with  the  ability  to  supply  moisture  whenever  needed, 


SMALL   FRUITS.  55 

and  an  abundance  of  sunshine,  comes  about  as  near  the  ideal  condition  as 
could  well  be  named.  "Wherever  we  find  the  ague  an  habitual  guest 
with  the  inhabitants  we  need  not  look  for  healthy  grape  vines,  but  high 
table  lands  and  hillsides,  with  their  dry  atmosphere  and  cool  breezes,  and 
on  gentle  slopes — these  are  among  the  best  locations  for  the  culture  of  the 
grape,"  says  an  authority.  Again  he  says  :  "  A  good  soil  for  a  vineyard 
should  be  a  dry,  calcareous  loam,  sufficiently  deep,  (say  three  feet,)  loose 
and  friable,  draining  itself  readily.  A  sandy,  yet  moderately  rich  soil 
is  better  adapted  to  most  varieties  than  heavy  clay.  New  soils,  both 
granite  and  limestone,  made  up  by  nature  of  decomposed  stone  and  leaf 
mould,  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  that  have  long  been  in  cultivation, 
unless  these  have  been  put  in  clever,  and  rested  a  few  years.  If  you 
have  such  a  location  and  soil,  seek  no  further,  ask  no  chemist  to  analyze 
its  ingredients,  but  go  at  once  to  preparing  the  soil." 

The  chief  points  to  be  observed  right  here  are,  that  all  varieties  do 
not  succeed  equally  well  on  any  one  soil,  nor  under  the  same  treatment 
with  respect  to  irrigation.  Neither  can  the  same  rules  apply,  except  in  a 
general  sense,  with  reference  to  pruning.  For  this  reason  no  discussion 
of  details  will  here  be  attempted.  All  agree  that  the  soil  should  be 
deeply  plowed  or  spaded,  well  drained,  with  a  sponge-like  sub-soil  that 
holds  moisture  well,  and  should  be  of  a  uniform  texture  and  richness  so 
far  as  possible. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  all  parts  of  Colorado,  barring  altitude,  soils 
may  be  found  upon  which  the  grape  will  thrive.  Those  localities  that 
seem  particularly  well  adapted  to  its  culture  are  situations  like  much  of 
Fremont  and  Boulder  Counties,  where  the  soil  is  largely  of  decomposed 
granite  and  limestone,  and  where  a  modifying  influence  is  exerted  on 
local  surroundings  by  the  presence  of  the  foot-hills. 

IRRIGATION. 

'Twice,  at  most,  during  fruitage,  would  meet  the  requirements  of  this 
on  some  soils ;  while  on  the  light,  sandy  soil,  with  quick  drainage  (where 
those  kinds  inclined  to  be  late  in  maturing  are  often  planted),  once  a 
week  might  not  be  excessive.  With  Concord  and  Brighton  vines  on  this 
kind  of  soil,  I  have  found  it  necessary  to  use  water  freely  at  this  period. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  advise  the  use  of  little  or  no  water  for  the  grape  in  our 
climate,  without  any  regard  to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  drainage.  I 
say  again,  that  where  one  application  of  water  might  be  sufficient  on  a 


Grape  Vine  pruned  for  training  to 
perpendicular  wires  or  strips. 


One-year  Grape  Vine 
pruned. 


Three-year-old  Grape  Vine  pruned. 


Grape  Vine  ready  for  bearing. 


SMALL   FRIUTS.  57 

site  where  the  roots  go  down  to  perpetual  moisture  (and  we  know  and 
should  encourage  this  deep-rooting  tendency  or  habit  of  the  grape),  a  half 
dozen  waterings  might  be  within  limits  of  requirements  in  another  loca- 
tion. 

PRUNING. 

Upon  this  subject  there  has  been  perpetual  controversy  among  grow- 
ers, and  it  is  not  the  province  of  this  work  to  attempt  to  decide.  The 
proper  method  or  methods,  PS  several  are  not  far  from  right,  can  only  be 
learned  by  experience  and  careful  observation.  Our  illustrations  of  the 
appearance  of  a  well-trained  vine,  from  the  planting  to  its  development 
into  full-bearing  size,  will  give  an  idea  of  at  least  one  proper  method  of 
pruning.  This  much  may  be  said,  that  is  of  universal  application: 
"Avoid  too  much  wood  growth."  This  is  always  at  the  expense  of  fruit, 
whether  of  tree  or  vine.  Grow  but  one  cane  the  first  season,  and  in  the 
fall  cut  this  back  to  three  buds.  If  the  vine  has  made  a  vigorous  growth, 
two  canes  may  be  permitted  to  grow  the  second  season,  which,  in  turn, 
should  be  cut  back  to  within  a  few  buds  of  the  base.  Subsequent  pruning 
will  depend  upon  how  the  vine  is  to  be  trained,  also  on  its  habits  of 
growth. 

Says  the  Bushburg  Catalogue:  "There  is  one  well  authenticated 
fact  in  the  fruiting  of  the  grape,  viz:  that  the  finest  crops  are  produced 
upon  the  strongest  canes  of  the  previous  year's  growth.  The  only  proper 
system  of  pruning,  therfore,  will  be  that  which  encourages  and  secures  an 
abundance  of  such  shoots." 

Mr.  Fuller  also  says:  "Some  varieties  of  the  strong-growing  Lab- 
ruscas,  like  the  Concord,  Hartford,  Martha,  etc.,*  will  fruit  best  on  the 
laterals  of  the  young  canes  of  last  summer's  growth,  if  they  have  been 
properly  pinched  back.  All  of  these  rank  growers  should  have  plenty  to 
to  do — that  is,  they  should  be  pruned  much  longer  than  is  generally 
done.  All  of  the  Eiparia  produce  best  on  spurs  of  two  or  three  year  old 
canes." 

The  more  tender  Labrusca,  and  all  of  more  or  less  Vinefera  charac- 
teristics, like  Cassiday,  Creveling,  Catawba,  Delaware,  lona  and  Eebecca, 
produce  readily  and  abundantly  from  the  main  canes. 

Whenever  and  wherever  old  bones  are  at  hand,  place  them  where 
the  roots  of  the  grape  may  feed  on  them.  The  phosphates  are  a  staple 
food  of  the  grape. 


Grape  Trellises  most  commonly  used.     Strips  of  board  may  be 
substituted  for  the  wires  shown. 


SMALL    FRUITS.  59 

CURRANTS    AND    GOOSEBERRIES. 

A  cold,  damp,  Northern  exposure  is  where  nature  seems  to  have 
planted  these  and  kindred  fruits.  The  ribes,  in  their  various  species, 
abound  in  cool,  damp,  rich  soil  and  continuous,  uniform  moisture. 

The  four  essentials  to  the  best  results  are,  high  fertilization,  annual 
pruning,  heavy  mulching  and  a  sufficient  stirring  of  the  soil  to  keep 
down  the  weeds  and  make  the  ground  reasonably  mellow.  To  these,  of. 
course,  I  always  add,  in  ordinary  seasons,  two  or  three  thorough  irriga- 
tions during  the  fruiting  time.  This  latter  requirement  will  depend, 
however,  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  One  can  grow  many  small  berries 
and  much  wood  product,  or  an  abundance  of  large,  fine  fruit  with  little 
wood. 

This  much  in  general  terms ;  now  as  to  details.  If  any  one  has  any 
choice  in  soil  or  exposure,  let  that  be  selected  which  comes  nearest  the 
conditions  named.  If  not,  even  natural  disadvantages  may  be  overcome 
by  good  management.  In  any  event,  enrich  the  land  generously  with 
good  manure — well-rotted  stable  manure  is  excellent — plow  deep  and 
thoroughly,  and  place  the  land  in  good  condition  for  planting.  Mark 
rows  for  field  culture  about  five  feet  each  way,  or  the  rows  may  be  five 
feet  apart,  and  the  plants  set  four  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  My  own  expe- 
rience leads  me  to  favor  close  planting,  such,  of  course,  as  will  not  be  in- 
consistent with  easy  cultivation.  It  will  have  a  tendency  to  shade  tHe 
earth  and  keep  it  cool  and  moist,  and  to  protect  the  foliage  and  fruit  buds 
against  injury  from  sun,  frost,  and  extremes  of  temperature.  For 
garden  planting,  four  feet  each  way  will  be  about  the  right  thing.  After 
the  stock  is  in  the  ground,  of  course,  weeds  should  be  kept  down,  and 
water,  at  least  the  first  season,  freely  applied,  without  the  site  is  naturally 
moist.  Don't  fail  to  see  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  moisture  during 
the  time  of  fruiting.  It  will  greatly  aid  fruit  development  in  size,  yield 
and  general  appearance. 

PRUNING. 

Pruning  may  be  done  in  the  fall,  winter  and  early  spring.  Late  fall 
is,  perhaps,  as  good  a  time  as  as  any. 

The  tree  form  system  of  training  is  neither  practicable  nor  desirable 
with  us  for  field  culture,  and  should  not  be  practical  where  the  borer  is 
liable  to  work.  A  dozen  strong  branches  or  root  shoots  are  enough  for 


60  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

any  bush.  These  should  be  cut  back  each  season,  according  to  the  growth 
made.  Where  the  tendency  is  to  make  a  rapid  wood  growth,  cut  back 
each  season  from  one-third  to  one-half  the  season's  growth.  This  pro- 
motes the  formation  of  fruit  buds,  and,  of  course,  avoids  the  long,  barren 
stems  so  often  seen  in  currant  bushes.  The  aim  should  be  to  form  a  com- 
pact, stocky  bush  that  will  not  only  yield  well,  but  that  will  withstand 
wind  and  weather.  The  small  shoots  or  suckers  should  always  be  kept 
down.  They  are  an  enemy  to  the  fruit  yield. 

In  pruning,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  too  much  of  the  old  wood 
if  fruit  is  wanted,  as  the  fruit  is  produced  on  wood  of  two  years'  growth 
and  upwards,  and  not  on  shoots  of  the  previous  season's  growth.  Black 
varieties  are,  however,  an  exception  to  the  rule.  Their  best  fruit  buds 
come  from  the  previous  season's  growth. 

We  have  raised  at  Gardenside,  in  one  season,  on  less  than  an  eighth 
of  an  acre  of  bushes,  upwards  of  800  quarts  of  currants.  When  well  man- 
aged they  are  a  profitable  fruit  to  grow. 


CUTTINGS,    ETC. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  are  propagated  either  from  cuttings  or 
layers,  usually  the  former.  They  grow  readily  from  cuttings  which  may 
be  made  in  the  fall  or  spring.  If  in  the  fall,  where  the  ground  is  ready, 
plant  at  once,  covering  close  to  the  terminal  bud.  Protect  them  by  a 
mulch  of  coarse  litter  or  manure.  I  plant  both  in  fall  or  spring.  Cut- 
tings made  in  August,  if  the  season's  growth  is  mature,  can  be  planted  at 
once  and  grown  successfully,  but  the  ground  should  be  kept  moist  and 
mulched,  as  stated.  They  may  also  be  cut  in  fall  or  winter,  when  wood 
is  free  from  frost,  and  buried  either  in  cellar  or  ground  outside  below  the 
action  of  the  frost,  and  allowed  to  remain  until  ready  for  planting.  In 
this  way  they  will  often  form  small  roots,  and  be  in  good  shape  for  mak- 
ing an  immediate  growth  when  planted.  However,  cuttings  may  betaken 
as  soon  as  land  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  and,  if  properly  set,  they  will 
grow  readily.  They  are  usually  made  in  sections  of  six  to  ten  inches  of 
new  wood,  and  should  be  cut  at  the  base  near  a  strong  bud.  The 
stronger  the  bud  or  buds  are  at  the  base  of  the  cutting,  the  stronger  will 
be  the  roots  and  growth.  Let  the  soil  be  mellow  and  rich,  and  have  the 
earth  very  firm  around  the  lower  end  of  the  cutting. 


SMALL    FRUITS.  6  I 

Currants  and  gooseberries  belong  to  the  same  tribe,  or  different 
branches  of  the  same  (Ribes)  family,  and  require  substantially  the  same 
treatment. 

Another  method  of  growing  both  currant,  gooseberry  and  grape  cut- 
tings, which  is  quite  successful,  is  as  follows:  Cuttings  are  tied  in  bundles 
and  buried  in  a  dry  place,  top-end  down,  so  that  the  bud  end  is  about  one 
foot  below  the  surface  of  soil.  Plenty  of  soil  must  be  worked  down  among 
the  cuttings.  Some  straw  or  litter,  thrown  over  the  spot,  serves  to  keep 
the  ground  from  freezing.  The  soil  is  removed  in  early  spring  to  within 
two  inches  of  the  cutting,  and  a  thick  layer  of  fermenting  horse  manure 
thrown  upon  them.  This  warms  the  ground,  and  induces  not  only  rapid 
callusing,  but  in  many  cases  formation  of  roots  also.  At  the  proper  time 
the  cuttings  are  taken  up  and  planted  in  the  usual  fashion  in  rich,  well- 
prepared  soil. 

For  currant  and  gooseberry  worm  remedies,  and  for  treatment  of  the 
borer,  see  chapter  on  "  Insect  Remedies." 

CRANBERRY. 

It  is  early  yet  to  state  with  certainty  as  to  the  probability  of  success- 
ful cranberry  culture  in  this  region,  but  the  opinion  is  expressed  that 
those  lands  impregnated  with  alkali  deposits  will  not  be  suited  to  this 
fruit.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  in  the  higher  mountain  ravines,  or 
depressions,  which  are  comparatively  free  from  the  action  of  these  salts, 
and  where  running  water  is  accessible,  lands  will  be  found  on  which  the 
cranberry  will  flourish.  It  succeeds  over  a  wide  range  of  country  and 
does  particularly  well  between  38°  and  45°  North  latitude. 

The  best  soil  and  situation,  says  Mr.  Thomas  in  "The  American 
Fruit  Culturist,"  for  the  cranberry,  "consists  of  peat  and  muck  bottoms 
coated  with  pure  sand,  obtained  from  adjacent  banks,  and  the  ground  thus 
prepared,  to  be  capable  of  being  flooded  with  clear  running  water  at 
pleasure  during  winter,  and  thoroughly  drained  at  other  times.  Drift 
soils  have  proved  unsuccessful.  Muddy  water  over  the  plants  injures 
them." 

The  leading  cranberries  are  the  Bell,  Bugle  and  Cherry,  with  inter- 
mediate grades. 

Another  shrub  (Viburnum  Oxycoccus,)  is  sometimes  classed  as  high 
or  bush  cranberry,  and  resembles  the  snowball  in  wood  and  foliage.  It 


62 


HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 


succeeds  on  high  lands  in  various  sections  of  the  country  and  bears  red 
fruit,  in  appearance  some  like  the  cranberry,  and  while  often  esteemed,  is 
not  generally  regarded  as  a  fruit  of  much  merit. 


DWARF  CHERRY  AND  JUNEBERRY. 

Among  the  fruits  native  of  Colorado  which  are  worthy  of  extended 
planting,  and  which  improve  with  culture,  are  the  dwarf  cherry  and  the 
dwarf  Juneberry.  These  are  both  absolutely  hardy,  are  good  annual  bear- 
ers and  quite  ornamental  in  appearance.  The  fruit  of  the  dwarf  cherry 
is  especially  valuable  for  pies  and  preserves,  and  is  often  pleasant  to  eat 
from  the  hand.  It  is  wonderfully  productive,  and  will  survive  all  changes 
and  vicissitudes  of  the  most  exacting  climate. 

The  dwarf  Juneberry  resembles  somewhat  the  huckleberry,  but  is 
rather  larger ;  black,  with  blue  bloom,  when  ripe. 

In  flavor  it  is  a  pleasant  sub-acid.  Blooms  very  early  in  the  sum- 
mer, and  is  very  ornamental  at  this  time.  Needs  considerable  moisture. 


SHOWING  THE  NUMBER   OF  TREES  OR  PLANTS  PER  ACRE  WHEN   PLANTED 
AT  STATED   DISTANCES  IN   FEET. 


1x1 

No.  of  Plants. 

43  560 

14  x  14 

No.  of  Plants. 
222 

34  x  34  ... 

No.  of  Plants. 
37 

1x2 

21  780 

15  x  15 

193 

35  x  35 

35 

2x2 

10  8% 

16  x  16 

170 

36  x  36  ... 

32 

2x3 

7  260 

17  x  17 

150 

37  x  37 

31 

2x4 

..     5,445 

18  x  18  ... 

134 

38  x  38  ... 

?0 

3x3 

4  840 

19  x  19 

120 

39  x  39 

28 

3x4. 

3,630 

20  x  20  ... 

109 

40  x  40  ... 

27 

3x6 

.    2420 

20  x  21 

98 

41  x  41  ... 

26 

4x4 

2  722 

22  x  22 

90 

42  x  42 

24 

4x6 

...    1  820 

23  x  23 

85 

43  x  43  ... 

22 

4x8 

1  352 

24  x  24 

75 

44  x  44 

22 

5x5 

1  742 

°5  x  25 

69 

45  x  45 

21 

6x6 

1  210 

26  x  26 

64 

46  X  46 

20 

6x8 

910 

27  x  27  . 

59 

47  X  47  ... 

19 

7x7 

888 

28  x  28 

55 

48  X  48  ... 

18 

8x8 

680 

30  x  30 

48 

49  x  49 

18 

9x9 

537 

31  x  31 

45 

50  x  50  ... 

17 

10  x  10 

435 

32  x  32 

43 

12  x  12  .. 

302 

33  x  33  ... 

40 

RULE.— Multiply  the  distance  in  feet  between  the  rows  by  the  distance  the 
plants  are  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of  square  feet  for 
each  plant  or  hill,  which  divided  into  the  number  of  feet  in  an  acre  (43,560)  will 
give  the  number  of  plants  or  trees  to  the  acre. 


SMALL   FRUITS.  63 


DISTANCES    FOR    PLANTING. 

As  to  distance  for  planting  no  exact  rule  can  be  given,  on  account  of 
difference  in  habits  of  growth,  but  the  following  table  will  serve  as  a  gen- 
eral guide : 

Standard  Apples 18  to  30  feet  apart  each  way. 

Dwarf          ••        8  to  12 

Standard  Pears 12  to  20 

Dwarf          " 8  to  10 

Plums 8  to  16 

Cherry  Trees 12  to  18 

Grapes 6  to  10 

Raspberries  and  Blackberries 3  to  5  by  5  to    8 

Currants  and  Gooseberries 4  to    5     "        "        "         " 

Strawberries,  Field  Culture 1  by  3 

Garden  Culture 1  by  2 

WEIGHTS    OF   TREES. 

Forest  trees  with  clean  roots  will  weigh  about  as  follows:  3  to  4  and  8  inch,  5  to  8 
Ibs.  per  thousand ;  8  to  15  inch,  10  to  15  Ibs.  per  thousand  ;  12  to  20  inch,  15  to  30  Ibs. 
per  thousand. 

One  thousand  Apple  trees,  packed  for  shipment,  ordinarily  weigh— 1  year,  1 
to  2  feet,  about  400  Ibs  ;  2  years,  3  to  6  feet,  SCO  ;  3  years,  4  to  6  feet,  1,400 ;  4  years,  5 
to  7  or  8  feet,  2,200  Ibs. 


VEGETABLE  CULTURE. 

The  three  essentials  everywhere  to  successful  vegetable  culture  are, 
first,  (and  at  any  price,)  good  seed,  true  to  name;  second,  good  soil;  and 
third,  thorough  cultivation.  To  these  should  he  added  another  condition, 
scarcely  less  important,  viz :  moisture,  at  all  times  when  needed.  The 
last  named  requirement  is  what  gives  the  gardener  who  has  water,  or 
facilities  for  irrigation,  an  immense  advantage  over  one  who  has  not.' 

As  to  the  matter  of  detail,  the  first  and  very  important  point  to  be 
observed  is  to  have  the  ground  in  a  suitable  condition  for  the  crop  to  be 
raised.  This  with  reference  to  culture  under  the  ordinary  methods  of 
irrigation,  means  not  only  putting  the  soil  in  the  right  shape,  but  it 
implies  as  well  having  the  land  graded,  so  that  water  can  be  readily  run 
to  any  part  desired.  This,  to  the  grower  of  vegetables  by  means  of  arti- 
ficial irrigation,  is  a  very  important  item,  and  if  neglected  will  be  the 
source  of  much  annoyance  and  trouble  later  on.  First,  then,  prepare  the 
ground  thoroughly  before  planting. 

The  scope  of  this  work  will  not  admit  of  giving  instructions  in 
detail,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  chapter  on  "  Celery  Culture  "  we  are 
necessarily  limited  to  brief  comments  on  the  leading  and  best  known  pro- 
ducts under  this  head.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  many  or  nearly  all 
familiar  varieties  do  exceedingly  well  in  this  portion  of  the  West,  and  as 
a  rule  are  profitable  for  the  grower.  For  valuable  information  connected 
with  this  subject  I  am  indebted  to  my  neighbor,  Mr.  C.  E.  Ward,  a  prac- 
tical and  skillful  commercial  gardener  of  large  experience. 

ASPARAGUS. 

This  is  always  a  good  crop  and  very  desirable.  It  can  be  grown 
either  from  seed  or  roots.  It  requires  about  four  years  to  get  a  good 
stand  from  seed,  hence  it  is  considered  better  to  plant  roots.  One-year 
plants  are  probably  best,  although  two-year  plants  are  often  set.  In  pre- 
paring ground  manure  heavily  and  sub-soil,  if  possible. 

For  family  use  plant  say  one  foot  each  way ;  but  for  garden  culture 
plant  four  feet  from  row  to  row,  and  two  feet  apart  in  the  row. 


VEGETABLE  CULTURE.  65 

In  setting  an  asparagus  plant  set  roots  exactly  two  inches  under 
surface  and  spread  the  roots  out  well.  The  first  season  cultivate  well ; 
keep  clear  of  weeds  and  irrigate  say  every  two  weeks.  The  second  season 
little  may  be  cut,  but  not  much.  The  third  season  the  bed  comes  into 
full  bearing.  Each  fall  put  on  a  good  coating  of  well-rotted  manure,  and 
the  following  spring  dig  this  in  and  around  the  roots  with  a  digging  fork. 
After  this,  a  barrel  of  salt  to  the  acre  sowed  over  the  bed  is  beneficial. 
This,  even  if  it  has  no  special  value  as  a  fertilizer,  is  often  an  excellent 
conserver  of  moisture. 

Keep  well  watered  during  the  cutting  season.  After  this,  water  once 
a  month.  Cut  every  day. 

BEETS. 

Sow  from  March  15th  to  April  15th,  with  Matthews'  or  other  good 
drill,  in  rows  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  in  rich  garden  soil, 
and  about  one  inch  deep. 

For  first  early,  the  Egyptian  is  excellent;  Eclipse  nearly  as  early, 
and  of  fine  quality— an  abundant  bearer. 

Blood  turnip  still  later ;  very  desirable. 

Plant  Mangel-Wurzels  for  stock  beet.  This  is  a  wonderful  yielder, 
and  valuable  for  stock.  Will  easily  produce  25  tons  to  the  acre. 

Never  irrigate  the  beet,  unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  bring  it 
up,  but  cultivate  often  and  well. 

TURNIP,    PARSNIP   AND    CARROT. 

Sow  turnip,  parsnip  and  carrot  seed  one-half  inch  deep,  same  distance 
as  beet,  and  give  same  cultivation,  with  frequent  irrigations  until  the  root 
is  fully  formed.  After  carrot  or  parsnip  form  roots,  or  the  plants  are 
large  enough  to  shade  the  ground,  do  not  irrigate  them,  as  it  will  be  an 
injury  2  and  tend  to  rot  them  in  the  ground.  The  carrot,  especially,  is  a 
prodigious  yielder,  and  with  gocd  soil  and  cultivation  has  been  grown  in 
Greeley  at  the  rate  of  a  thousand  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  Danvers  vari- 
ety is  an  excellent  general-purpose  carrot. 

CABBAGE. 

One  of  the  best  vegetable  crops,  when  grown  on  a  large  scale — say 
from  five  to  twenty-five  acres. 

The  plant  is  hardy,  and  can  be  set  quite  early.  Has  stood  twenty 
degrees  below  freezing.  Plant  early  varieties  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  by 


66  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

eighteen  inches  in  the  row ;  and  for  late  kinds,  rows  three  feet  apart  and 
two  feet  in  row.  One  active  man,  who  is  familiar  with  the  work,  can  set, 
with  dibble,  ten  thousand  plants  in  a  day,  with  a  boy  to  drop  plants.  They 
should  have  good  garden  soil,  but  do  especially  well  where  very  coarse 
manure  has  been  spread  and  plowed  under.  Mark  rows  the  distance  to  be 
planted,  and,  if  ground  is  very  dry,  run  water  along  in  the  row  before 
planting ;  but,  in  this  case,  it  is  better  to  wait  until  the  soil  is  somewhat 
dried  before  setting.  Irrigate  immediately  after  plants  are  set.  In  other 
words,  let  the  water  follow  the  planter  right  along  the  rows.  As  soon  as 
soil  is  sufficiently  dry,  put  on  cultivator.  Water  again  the  second  day, 
and  afterwards  two  or  three  times  during'the  season.  Give  a  little  irriga- 
tion as  heads  are  beginning  to  form,  but  not  after  they  are  developed,  as 
this  will  cause  them  to  burst. 

The  best  early  variety  is  the  Jersey  Wakefield  (Henderson's  strain), 
and  the  next  best,  probably,  is  the  Early  Winningstadt.  For  late  cab- 
bage, the  Flat  Dutch  has  no  superior.  The  Excelsior,  of  recent  introduc- 
tion, is  very  fine.  The  largest  variety  known  is  the  Marblehead  Mam- 
moth. Of  8,000  heads  grown  by  our  near  neighbor,  the  average  weight 
was  fifteen  pounds  each.  Several  weighed  upwards  of  forty  pounds  each. 

Cultivate  every  week,  and  until  the  horse  cannot  walk  between  the 


STORING   CABBAGE. 

An  important  item  is  winter  storage.  Prices  are  usually  much, better 
in  the  spring.  Quite  a  successful  way  of  burying  in  winter  (and  this 
should  be  done  before  any  very  hard  freezes),  is  to  open  up  a  hollow 
trench  by  throwing  two  furrows  in  opposite  directions.  Then  place  the 
cabbage  head  down,  slightly  sloping,  and  lay  the  next  one  in  same  position, 
or  perhaps  a  little  sideways,  letting  the  lower  end  lap  over  the  head  of 
the  other,  and  so  on  to  the  length  of  the  trench.  After  all  are  in,  turn  the 
furrows  back  from  each  side  upon  the  plants.  This  will  leave  the  cover- 
ing of  earth  loose  on  top  of  the  cabbage  for  ventilation,  and  enable  the 
moisture  given  off  by  them  to  escape  readily  through  the  porous  soil. 
Before  the  coldest  weather  sets  in,  throw  more  dirt  loosely  over  the  top. 
Deep  covering  is  very  apt  to  rot  the  cabbage,  especially  where  the  earth 
is  moist  or  compact.  The  average  yield  of  cabbages,  on  good  garden  soil, 
should  be  50,000  pounds  to  the  acre.  From  eight  acres  this  season,  a 


VEGETABLE    CULTURE.  6/ 

neighbor,  Mr.  Keever,  of  Greeley,  took  off  twelve  car-loads,  netting  him 
$1,200.  The  average  price  in  Colorado  is  from  75  cents  to  $1.00  per  one 
hundred  pounds. 

CAULIFLOWER. 

This  plant  may  be  grown  to  perfection  in  Colorado. 

The  early,  medium  and  late  varieties  will  all  mature.  This  is  a 
great  advantage  over  the  Eastern  States. 

Plants  should  not  be  set  until  the  weather  is  settled,  which  in  this 
section  is  about  the  middle  of  April.  This  is  about  the  only  garden  plant 
that  moisture  does  not  injure.  In  fact  it  must  be  kept  continually  moist 
and  growing  right  along.  If  allowed  to  become  stunted  or  frosted,  little 
heads  or  buttons  will  form  and  the  crop  is  worthless.  With  the  excep- 
^tion  of  more  water,  cauliflower  requires  the  same  soil,  distance  in 
planting  and  general  culture  as  cabbages. 

Henderson's  Snow  Ball  is  considered  about  the  best  variety.  Our 
Greeley  florist,  Mr.  Leavy,  two  years  since  grew  two  heads  of  this  variety 
weighing,  when  trimmed,  twenty-six  pounds,  and  was  awarded  the  prize 
offered  by  Peter  Henderson  for  the  largest  and  best  two  heads  grown  in 
this  country. 

Seed  is  very  expensive,  and  has  often  cost  $8.00  per  ounce,  but  is  now 
reduced.  So  far  it  has  not  been  grown  in  America,  but  a  New  Jersey 
man  claims  to  have  discovered  the  secret,  and  if  so  prices  will  probably 
be  lower. 

MELONS. 

Musk  or  sugar  melons  are  a  great  success  with  good  treatment,  but 
ordinarily  most  varieties  are  too  late  for  this  region. 

Plant  in  moderately  good  soil,  rather  light  and  sandy,  on  the  level 
ground  and  not  on  raised  beds,  four  feet  apart  each  way.  Leave  two  or 
three  plants  in  a  hill. 

After  the  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  teacup,  pull  off  all  of  the  small 
fruit  and  trim  vines  back  to  within  six  inches  of  the  melons  selected  to 
remain.  By  this  means  the  melons  will  mature  much  earlier  and  will  be 
larger  and  finer  in  quality.  Give  but  little  water,  and  as  a  rule,  none 
after  the  fruit  is  half  grown. 

Water-melons  require  substantially  the  same  treatment — perhaps  a 
little  more  water. 


68  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

Plant  cucumbers  on  good  soil  and  give  them  lots  of  water.  They  are 
large  yielders. 

ONIONS. 

Onr  market  gardeners  report  an  occasional  yield  of  this  garden  pro- 
duct at  the  rate  of  a  thousand  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  with  an  average  of 
from  five  to  six  hundred  bushels.  Onions  are  nearly  always  in  good 
demand  with  price  not  less  than  $1.25  per  hundred  pounds. 

No  vegetable  requires  more  careful  treatment  with  regard  to  irriga- 
tion. If  not  applied  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right  manner,  injury  is 
sure  to  follow.  In  irrigating,  water  should  never  touch  the  plant,  as  it  is 
pretty  certain  to  ruin  it  in  any  stage  of  growth.  To  avoid  this  it  is  best 
to  sow  in  ridges. 

Sow  seed  with  drill  from  March  15th  to  April  1st. 

Plant  two  rows,  six  inches  apart,  on  each  ridge,  with  the  ridges  two 
feet  apart,  using  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  on  rich 
ground.  Give  extra  good  cultivation.  Scullions  are  numerous  among 
onions,  some  seasons — probably  the  result  of  improper  irrigation  or  poor 
seed,  or  perhaps  both.  Good  sets,  as  well  as  seed,  can  be  grown  in  Colo- 
rado. For  sets,  sow  seed  thickly,  twenty-five  or  thirty  pounds  to  the  acre. 
When  up,  and  bulb  begins  to  form,  no  more  water  should  be  given  them. 
This  is  a  very  important  precaution,  and  one  of  the  essentials  of  growing 
good  sets.  After  sets  are  grown  plant  them  instead  of  the  seed,  and  the 
crop  will  not  only  be  much  surer,  but  will  be  ready  for  market  nearly  two 
months  in  advance  of  seed-grown  onions. 

The  best  variety  for  Colorado  is  the  Eed  Wethersfield  and  is  really  a 
good  onion,  but  its  color  is  against  it  for  market.  Yellow  Globe  Danvers 
is  the  best  market  variety  for  this  section. 

PEAS. 

All  of  this  family  of  vegetables  thrive  under  irrigation  and  should 
have  plenty  of  moisture  during  the  growing  season— particularly  at  the 
period  of  blooming. 

The  Little  Gem  and  American  Wonder  are  perhaps  the  best  for  a 
summer  crop ;  the  Champion  of  England  for  later.  The  latter  is  called 
the  best  "  hot  weather  "  pea. 

Plant  in  drills  three  feet  from  row  to  row. 


VEGETABLE   CULTURE.  69 

RADISH. 

This  is  a  very  popular  relish  and  is  always  in  great  demand.  A  rich 
sandy  loam  is  best  for  its  cultivation  and  successful  raising.  The  first 
crop,  out  doors,  is  usually  planted  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  first 
of  April. 

Wood's  Early  Frame  and  Long  Scarlet  Short  Top,  for  early. 

For  general  summer  crop  the  Early  Round  Dark  Red.  For  fall  and 
winter  crop  grow  the  Chinese  Rose.  Red  varieties  sell  best. 

Plant  in  rows  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  give  abundance 
of  water  at  all  stages  of  growth ;  this  causes  a  quick  growth  and  makes 
them  sweet,  brittle  and  tender.  Keep  the  ground  moist  all  the  time. 
The  richer  the  soil,  the  quicker  and  better  the  growth  ;  this  is  essential. 
Keep  the  soil  thoroughly  stirred. 

SQUASH. 

This  is  not  only  a  delicious  and  wholesome  food  for  the  table,  but 
is  valuable  for  stock  feeding,  especially  for  swine.  They  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  squash,  and  will  thrive  and  fatten  on  it,  either  cooked  or  un- 
cooked. Fed  in  connection  with  a  little  corn,  or,  better  still,  corn  meal, 
it  makes  a  prime  article  of  pork. 

This  vegetable  will  thrive  on  almost  any  soil,  although,  of  course,  it 
will  do  best  on  good  land. 

Like  the  melon  family,  it  needs  but  little  water,  and  often  none  at 
all. 

Difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced,  in  this  latitude,  in  getting  the 
squash  fujly  matured;  so,  where  the  tendency  is  to  a  great  growth  of 
vine,  the  same  treatment  should  be  given  as  described  in  growing  melons. 

Under  even  fair  conditions  the  yield  is  enormous,  and  is  always  a 
profitable  crop  for  the  gardener  and  stock  farmer. 

The  Early  Orange,  sent  out  for  testing  last  season  by  the  "Rural  New 
Yorker,"  is  a  fine  summer  variety.  The  Hubbard  is  the  best  keeper. 
Marblehead  is  rather  late  in  maturing  for  Northern  sections.  The  Mam- 
moth Chili  is  largest,  and  is  often  grown  to  the  size  of  150  pounds;  used 
mostly  for  stock. 

SWEET    POTATOES. 

This  vegetable  is  well  adapted  to  the  dry  climate  and  constant  sun- 
shine of  Colorado.  Excellent  yields,  with  fine  quality,  have  been  had 


/O  HORTICULTURE   BY    IRRIGATION. 

in  various  parts  of  the  State.  In  one  instance  in  Greeley,  at  the  rate  of 
600  bushels  to  the  acre  were  grown,  arid  sold  at  five  cents  per  pound* 
wholesale. 

Set  the  plants  in  rich,  sandy  loam,  on  ridges  thrown  up  by  one-horse 
plow,  three  feet  apart  and  sixteen  inches  from  plant  to  plant. 

Bun  water  between  ridges  and  let  it  soak  up,  but  put  no  water  on  the 
plant,  as  it  will  cause  sun-scald.  Give  about  the  same  water  as  to  Irish 
potatoes  ;  but  after  the  tubers  are  thoroughly  set,  give  no  more  water. 

Keep  vines  from  taking  root  at  the  joint. 

After  digging,  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  sun  a  day,  and  they  will 
be  sweetor  and  less  watery. 

Red  Bermuda  is  one  of  the  best  sorts  for  Colorado. 

STRING    BEANS. 

This  is  another  great  vegetable  for  a  climate  and  soil  like  that  of 
Colorado.  "Can  almost  beat  the  world  on  these,''  says  a  gardener.  With 
good,  rich  soil,  rather  sandy,  and  an  irrigation  once  a  week,  the  result  will 
be  astonishing. 

The  Golden  Wax  is  the  earliest,  best  and  most  profitable,  and  a  most 
delicious  table  bean. 

Plant  rows  two  and  one-half  feet  apart,  in  drills. 

SWEET    CORN. 

The  point  to  be  observed,  in  the  cultivation  of  corn,  is  to  water  at 
the  right  time,  or  the  crop  will  be  injured.  It  needs  but  little  irrigation 
(none,  as  the  rule,)  until  the  tassel  is  on,  and  again  when  the  ears  begin  to 
form.  One  irrigation  will  often  do. 

The  Minnesota  for  first  early,  and  Stowell's  Evergreen  for  fall,  are 
among  the  best  for  general  crop;  but  both  should  be  planted  at  nearly  the 
same  time,  in  order  to  get  the  proper  succession. 

TOMATOES. 

Not  safe  to  set  out,  in  Northern  Colorado,  until  the  middle  of  May. 

For  general  crop,  the  Acme  and  Livingstone's  Perfection  are  perhaps 
the  best.  Plant  on  rather  poor  soil,  and  without  manure.  Set  in  rows 
six  feet  apart,  with  plants  three  feet  apart  in  rows.  Between  the  rows,  a 
row  of  early  sweet  corn  may  be  planted.  This  will  furnish  a  shade  for 


VEGETABLE    CULTURE.  /I 

the  plants,  and  not  interfere  with  their  growth.  The  ground  for  tomatoes 
should  be  thoroughly  soaked  immediately  after  they  are  set  out,  and  per- 
haps irrigated  again  in  a  week  or  so,  but  should  seldom  be  watered  after 
the  fruit  has  set  on  the  vines.  Good  cultivation  will  develop  the  fruit 
best. 


G 


|       f      f    1     I 


Neat  Method  of  Garden  Irrigation. 

a,  canal ;  6,  flume  ;  c,  box  or  pipe  at  head  of  rows ;  d,  gates  or 
checks  at  head  of  each  row. 


This  is  usually  a  profitable  crop,  but  is  sometimes  troubled  with 
blight,  which  is  attributed  by  some  to  the  injudicious  use  of  water,  or  un- 
favorable soil. 


72  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

Alkali  land  should  not  be  used  for  tomatoes.  Our  neighbor,  Mr. 
Ward,  took  last  season,  from  640  hills,  622  bushels  of  ripe  fruit,  and  left 
upwards  of  40  bushels  of  immature  fruit  unpicked;  so  that  this  strip  of 
ground  netted  him  nearly  $200. 

RHUBARB    OR   PIE    PLANT. 

This  is  a  plant  that  well  repays  cultivation  and  requires  less  care 
after  it  becomes  established  than  most  vegetable  roots.  Little  irrigation 
is  needed,  and  often  none,  if  soil  is  deep  and  mellow  and  liberal  mulching 
is  practiced.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  throw  around  each  hill,  in  the  winter  or 
early  spring  a  liberal  coating  of  well  rotted  manure ;  hen  manure  well 
mixed  with  soil  is  excellent. 

If  desired  for  early  market,  a  rich  sandy  loam  is  best,  and  the  growth 
may  be  hastened  in  the  spring  by  placing  around  the  plants  a  half  barrel 
with  bottom  out,  or  any  similar  arrangement.  Give  the  plants  plenty  of 
room — three  feet  square  for  each  will  not  be  too  much. 

The  varieties  generally  grown  are  for  early,  Linnaeous,  and  Victoria 
for  late. 

HORSE    RADISH. 

This  root  is  largely  grown  and  is  very  profitable  in  some  localities, 
and  does  well  everywhere.  Will  make  a  prodigious  growth  in  rich,  deep 
soil.  Being  a  deep-rooting  plant  little  or  no  irrigation  is  needed.  Should 
not  be  planted  on  soil  or  Jn  a  place  that  cannot  afterwards  be  deeply 
plowed  or  spaded,  (that  is  to  be  used  for  other  root  crops,)  because  it  takes 
possession  of  the  ground  and  is  difficult  to  exterminate. 


CELERY  CULTURE. 


BY   JOHN    TOBIAS,    OF   JEFFERSON    COUNTY,    COLORADO. 

Since  writing  upon  this  subject,  some  six  years  ago,  celery  culture 
near  the  city  of  Denver  has  taken  great  strides  forward,  as  far  as  quantity 
is  concerned.  At  the  present  time  not  only  is  the  home  market  fully 
supplied,  but  it  is  being  shipped  to  all  the  large  mining  towns  in  Colorado 
and  hundreds  of  miles  in  every  direction,  and  in  dry  years  like  the  last 
(1887)  was  shipped  to  Kansas  City  and  farther  East,  thanks  to  our 
system  of  irrigation  which  makes  it  a  safe  crop  to  grow  in  Colorado. 

As  far  as  quality  is  concerned  I  can  see  no  improvement  in  the  past 
five  years.  The  following  are  the  varieties  mostly  grown,  and  the  merits 
of  each : 

At  the  head  of  the  list  and  for  main  crop  I  would  place  Golden 
Dwarf,  or  Golden  Heart  of  some  seed  dealers — both  the  same — as  the  best 
for  winter  use. 

This  variety  will  grow  two  feet  high  and  twelve  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence. It  will  keep  longer  and  better  than  any  other  variety  I  have  tried. 
Perhaps  three-fourths  of  the  celery  grown  for  this  market  is  of  this 
variety.  White  Plume  would  perhaps  conie  next  in  quantity  grown. 
This  variety  is  intended  for  fall  and  early  winter  use ;  is  self-blanching  to 
a  great  extent,  the  inside  stems  and  tops  being  of  a  silvery  white  color, 
even  without  banking  up;  is  very  ornamental  on  the  table  and  is  used 
very  extensively  for  this  purpose.  Although  blanched  in  appearance  it 
is  by  no  means  as  brittle  and  tender  as  other  varieties  that  require  the 
exclusion  of  light  to  blanch  them.  If  earthed  up,  like  other  varieties,  it 
would  be  sweet  and  crisp  as  any ;  but  it  is  not  a  good  variety  to  keep  later 
than  New  Years. 

The  Golden  Self-Blanching  is  a  variety  introduced  lately  which  is 
growing  in  favor  with  many  for  early  use ;  is  of  a  short  and  stocky 
growth,  rarely  ever  over  eighteen  inches  high,  the  inside  being  very 
short ;  grows  very  close  and  compact ;  very  liable  to  rot  if  banked  up  too 
high  in  hot  weather — in  fact,  should  not  be  banked  at  all.  A  few  inches 


74  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

of  soil  around  the  base  of  the  plant,  or  the  plant  tied  together  low  down, 
is  about  all  it  needs  to  blanch  it ;  even  then  only  the  heart  of  it  is  fit  for. 
use.  Have  never  tried  its  keeping  qualities. 

Henderson's  Half  Dwarf  is  little  used  at  present  and  Red  Celery  not 
at  all,  as  there  is  no  demand  for  it.  Celeriac,  or  root  celery,  is  grown  in  a 
small  way  by  a  few  gardeners. 

Seed  sowing  should  be  done  in  this  latitude  about  April  1st,  in  a  cold 
frame  or  out  of  doors,  in  a  damp  place.  If  sown  much  earlier  many  of 
the  plants  will  go  to  seed  ;  if  allowed  to  suffer  for  want  of  water  they  will 
also  throw  up  seed  shoots.  The  soil  of  the  seed  bed  should  be  rich  and 
made  very  fine,  as  celery  is  very  slow  in  sprouting. 

Sow  thinly  in  drills  two  and  a  half  inches  apart  (if  in  frame),  cover 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep;  water  with  a  fine  rose  watering  pot,   and 
never  allow  to  get  dry  until  the  plants  are  up,  which  will  be  in  about 
three  weeks.     To  save  much  watering,  it  is  well  to  cover  the  ground  with 
burlap  sacks  or  material  of  that  kind,  removing  them  when  the  plants 
appear.     If  glass  is  used,  shade  it  from  the  hot  sunshine.     If  sown  out  of 
doors,  it  should  be  where  they  will  not  suffer  for  moisture.      Drill  in 
rows  a  foot  apart,  so  they  can  be  cultivated  and  hoed;  or,  the  seed  may  be 
drilled  in  where  the  plants  are  to  remain,  being  afterwards  thinned  to  the 
required  distance.     This  plan  saves  some  work  in  transplanting.     If  the 
seed  was  sown  carefully  in  the  seed  bed,  the  plants  will  need  no  thinning. 
With  good  seed,  four  to  an  inch  will  be  about  right.     One  ounce  of  seed 
should  sow  a  bed  of  eight  square  yards;    two  ounces  will  give  plants 
enough  for  an  acre  of  celery.     When  about  two  inches  high,  if  found  to  be 
too  thick,  they  should  be  thinned  to  the  required  distance,  being  an  inch 
apart,  if  it  is  not  designed  to  transplant  them  before  permanent  setting; 
if  to  be  transplanted  later  into  another  bed,  then  about  four  to  the  inch. 
When  about  four  inches  high,  cut  the  tops  off  about  midway,  and,  if  in- 
clined to  grow  long  and  spindling,  cut  them  off  once  or  twice  again. 
About  the  1st  of  June,  if  the  plants  have  been  left  thick  in  the  seed  bed, 
they  should  be  transplanted  into  another  similar  bed,  about  three  inches 
between  plants  each  way,  well  watered  and  shaded  for  a  few  days,  until 
they  have  started  to  grow.     If  the  plants  were  thinned  in  the  seed  bed, 
when  small,  to  an  inch  or  more  apart,  transplanting  will  be  unnecessary. 
About  a  month  before  it  is  time  to  take  up,  draw  a  knife  along  the  row, 
so  as  to  cut  off  the  tap  root  about  two  inches  below  the  surface.     Give  the 
plants  a  good  dusting  of  bone  dust,  which  the  water  will  wash  down  to  the 


CELFRY  CULTURE.  75 

roots,  and  they  will  soon  form  a  mass  of  fine  roots  near  the  surface.  By 
this  treatment,  the  plants  will  be  half  an  inch  thick  by  July  1st.  Forcing 
by  heat  is  not  good  for  them.  Celery  is  a  salt  water  plant,  and  delights 
in  moisture,  rich  soil,  and  partial  shade,  at  least  for  the  plants,  if  grown 
under  glass. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    GROUND. 

The  ground,  pre\ious  to  setting  out,  should  be  heavily  manured  a 
year  or  more  before  planting  the  celery,  for  best  results;  plow  deep,  and 
harrow  until  in  good  condition.  A  soil  that  is  rather  damp,  but  not  wet 
— that  would  be  good  for  late  cabbages — but  slightly  too  wet  for  most 
garden  crops  ;  a  spot  approaching  an  alkali  bed  (of  which  we  have  plenty 
in  Colorado),  but  not  showing  much  alkali  itself;  a  heavy  loam,  rather 
than  sand  ;  such  a  soil  will  generally  raise  good  celery,  if  rich  enough.  If 
manure  is  not  plenty,  good  celery  can  be  raised  by  making  a  deep  plow 
furrow  where  the  celery  row  is  to  be,  and  spreading  three  inches  of  rotted 
manure  in  it,  mixing  it  well  with  the  soil  with  cultivator  or  hoe;  but  it 
is  best  to  manure  the  whole  ground,  as  celery  roots  extend  for  three  or 
four  feet  on  each  side.  I  would  advise  against  the  use  of  much  fresli  horse 
manure,  as  I  think  it  has  a  tendency  to  cause  a  rank  growth,  making  the 
celery  soft  and  spongy. 

TIME    AND    MANNER    OF    SETTING    PLANTS. 

Early  celery,  such  as  White  Plume  and  Golden  Self-Blanching,  are 
set  out  from  the  15th  of  June  to  the  1st  of  July.  They  may  be  set  in  rows 
three  feet  apart,  if  not  to  be  banked  much;  otherwise,  four  to  four  and  a 
half  feet  by  six  inches  apart  in  the  row,  if  for  single  rows, 'or  ten  inches 
in  double  rows,  set  alternately,  the  two  rows  about  a  foot  apart.  Set  as 
you  would  cabbage  plants,  a  few  inches  below  the  general  level  of  the  soil, 
but  set  the  plant  no  deeper  than  it  was  before,  while  standing  in  the  seed 
bed.  Have  the  irrigating  water  to  follow  closely  after  the  planter. 

The  later  kinds  of  celery  require  five  to  six  feet  between  the  rows,  to 
give  soil  and  room  for  banking.  Plant  the  same  distance  in  the  row  as 
the  other  kinds,  from  July  1st  to  10th.  Care  should  be  used  in  removing 
the  plants  from  the  seed  bed,  that  as  many  roots  as  possible  may  be  re- 
tained. The  plants  should  be  graded  as  to  size,  not  planting  large  and 
small  plants  together.  My  experience  teaches  me  not  to  depend  upon 


?  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

rainy  weather  in  which  to  set  celery  plants  in  Colorado.  Unless  we  are 
assured  of  two  or  three  days  of  wet  weather  to  follow,  it  is  best  to  irrigate 
them  as  they  are  planted.  It  is  also  well  to  irrigate  again  soon  after 
planting,  to  make  sure  of  a  good  stand.  I  would  not  advise  replanting, 
unless  dene  in  a  few  days  after  the  original  planting. 

The  treatment  from  this  time  on  consists  in  good  cultivation,  and 
watering  as  often  as  may  be  necessary,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
soil,  hoeing  around  the  plants  and  keeping  the  soil  mellow.  It  is  well, 
after  the  plants  get  well  started,  to  fill  up  the  inequalities  around  the 
plants  with  soil,  so  that  they  may  grow  more  upright  and  not  spread  out 
flat  upon  the  ground. 

This  treatment  for  two  months  will  bring  us  to  the  time  of  "hand- 
ling," as  it  is  called,  which  consists  in  taking  the  [celery  (which  should 
stand  a  foot  or  more  high  by  this  time),  with  all  the  stems  gathered  to- 


Manner  of  Tying.  Celery  Plant. 

gether  in  one  hand,  and  drawing  enough  soil  around  it  with  the  other 
hand  to  keep  it  in  an  upright  position.  My  own  plan — and,  of  late  years, 
that  of  many  others — has  been,  after  gathering  the  stems  of  the  plant  to- 
gether and  holding  them  with  one  hand,  with  the  other  hand  I  place  a 
string  around  it  ancl  tie  it  rather  loosely,  allowing  for  future  growth ;  tie 
about  half  way  of  the  length  of  the  plant  (see  illustration).  After  a  row 
has  been  tied  in  this  way,  take  a  horse  and  small  turning  plow  and  turn 
a  furrow  against  the  row  of  celery  from  each  side.  For  celery  to  use 
early,  tie  a  piece  of  wrapping  paper,  eight  inches  high,  around  the  plant 
to  keep  the  soil  away  from  it.  This  is  not  necessary  unless  you  desire  to 


CELERY  CULTURE. 


77 


raise  some  extra  nice  celery,  entirely  free  from  rust,  as  the  soil  coming  in 
contact  with  the  plant  so  long  is  one  cause  of  rust.  This  is  all  the  White 
Plume  and  Self-Blanching  kinds  of  celery  will  need.  It  will  be  ready  for 
use  or  market  in  six  or  eight  weeks  after  this  work  is  done.  Handling  is 
all  that  winter  celery  will  need,  provided  it  is  put  in  trench  by  October 
20th ;  in  which  case  it  should  be  handled  about  a  month  before  that  time. 
But,  as  a  general  thing,  celery,  for  use  about  Christmas,  is  handled  about 
September  15th,  left  growing  two  weeks  or  more,  and  then  banked  with 
the  spade  as  high  as  the  stems  go  without  the  leaves.  After  another  two 


First  Banking. 


Second  Banking.  Third  Banking. 

or  three  weeks'  growth,  it  will  be  ready  to  bank  up  higher,  this  time  put- 
ting the  soil  clear  to  the  top  of  the  celery  (see  figures),  but  being  careful 
each  time  to  keep  the  soil  from  getting  into  the  celery.  Never  handle  or 
put  soil  to  celery  when  the  ground  is  wet  or  frosted.  It  can  be  left  after 
the  last  banking  until  it  is  time  to  trench  it;  or  it  may  be  left  out  until 
ready  for  use,  by  putting  enough  soil  or  coarse  manure  around  it  to  keep 
out  the  frost.  Left  in  this  way,  it  will  be  ready  for  market  the  latter  part 
of  November. 


7o  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

The  time  for  storing  or  trenching  for  winter  is  from  October  20th  to 
November  10th.  That  which  is  hilled  up  the  highest  can  be  left  out  the 
longest.  A  light  freeze  will  not  hurt  it  providing  you  do  not  touch  it. 
Celery  will  stand  nearly  as  much  freezing  as  cabbage.  Dig  your  trenches 
a  few  inches  deeper  than  the  celery  is  tall,  including  a  few  inches  of  roots, 
and  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide.  If  the  soil  is  damp  or  wet 
on  the  bottom,  provided  no  water  stands  in  it  long,  all  the  better. 


Storing  Celery. 

With  a  horse  and  plow  work  down  the  soil  from  around  the  celery.  With 
a  sharp  shovel  take  up  the  plants,  with  a  few  inches  of  root  attached,  place 
in  the  trench  upright,  rather  close  together  without  crowding  ;  cover  with 
boards  held  up  with  cross-pieces  a  few  inches  above  the  tops  of  the  celery, 
so  as  to  leave  an  air  space  over  the  trench  and  under  the  boards.  A  few 
inches  of  straw  upon  the  boards  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  some  time,  or 


CELERY  CULTURE.  79 

until  cold  weather.  When  it  threatens  to  freeze  up  be  prepared  to  put  on 
more  covering  of  long,  coarse  manure,  six  to  twelve  inches  deep,  or 
enough  to  keep  out  frost.  But  it  is  best  to  delay  putting  on  heavy  cover- 
ing as  late  as  it  is  safe.  More  celery  is  spoiled  in  the  trench  by  heating 
than  by  freezing ;  so,  after  a  heavy  covering  is  on  it  will  require  airing 
every  fine  day,  during  the  winter,  by  opening  a  small  hole  in  the  cover 
about  every  rod. 

In  preparing  celery  for  market  the  outside  green  leaves  and  the  roots 
are  removed,  all  soil  washed  or  scrubbed  off  and  any  decayed  or  rusty 
spots  neatly  removed  with  a  sharp  knife,  assorted  as  to  size  and  tied  in 
bundles  of  twelve  stocks.  If  it  is  to  be  shipped  any  distance,  each  bundle 
should  be  wrapped  in  brown  wrapping  paper. 

The  cost  of  raising  celery,  per  acre,  is  about  as  follows : 

Interest  on  $300  at  8  percent $  24.00 

Manure,  forty  loads  at  $2.00 80.00 

Plowing,  harrowing  and  marking— one  man  and  team 3.00 

Planting— one  man  four  days  at  81.50 6.00 

Cultivation— one  man  and  horse  three  days  at  $2.00 6  00 

Hoeing  twice— one  man  three  days  at  $1.50 4.50 

Handling  or  tying— one  man  ten  days  at  $1.50 15.00 

Banking -one  man  fifteen  days  a,t  $1.50 22.50 

Trenching 10.00 

Water  and  watering 7.00 

Thirteen  thousand  plants  at  $4.00  per  thousand 52.00 

Preparing  for  market 30.00 

Total $.60.00 

Prices  here  range  from  25  cents  to  $1.00  per  dozen,  according  to  size 
and  quality  ;  the  small  being  raised  at  a  loss,  the  large  at  a  good  profit. 
Perhaps  a  fair  average  would  be  50  cents  per  dozen.  Counting  12,000,  or 
1,000  dozen  per  acre,  we  have  receipts  of  $500.00,  or  about  one-half  profit. 
Where  land  and  manure  is  high  and  scarce,  it  is  desirable  to  help  out 
expenses  by  raising  an  early  crop  upon  the  ground  before  the  celery  is 
planted,  which  can  be  done  in  Colorado  to  some  extent,  but  not  as  well  as 
in  the  Eastern  states  where  the  seasons  are  longer.  Early  peas  may  be 
planted  on  the  ground,  and  after  the  first  good  picking  the  whole  turned 
under,  when  it  makes  a  valuable  manure ;  or  early  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
beets,  turnips,  lettuce,  or  potatoes  may  be  planted  in  rows  six  feet  apart, 
and  in  July  the  celery  set  between  the  rows.  The  first  named  crops  will 
be  off  the  ground  before  it  is  needed  for  banking  purposes.  By  this  means 
two  crops  can  be  raised,  and  hence  the  gardener  can  well  afford  to  manure 
the  ground  heavily. 


VITALITY  OF  SEEDS. 

The  keeping  quality  or  vitality  of  seeds  will  depend  somewhat  upon 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  kept,  as  well  as  upon  the  conditions  of 
climate  and  of  planting;  but  the  following  is  perhaps  a  fair  approximate 
of  the  average  vitality  of  the  list  given  : 


Years. 

Artichoke 5  to  6 

Asparagus 2  to  3 

Beans— all  kinds 2  to  3 

Beet 3  to  4 

Carrot 2  to  3 

Cress 3  to  4 

Corn  kept  on  the  cob ..2  to  3 

Cucumber 8  to  10 

Egg  Plant 1  to  2 

Cauliflower 5  to  6 

Celery 2  to  3 

Corn  Salad 2  to  3 

Anise 3  to  4 

Balm 2  to  3 

Caraway 2 

Hyssop 3  to  4 

Onoin 2  to  3 

Parsley 2  to  3 

Parsnip 2  to  3 

Pea 5  to  6 


Years. 

Pumpkin 8  to  10 

Rhubarb 3  to    4 

Squash 8  to  10 

Lettuce 3  to    4 

Melon 8  to  10 

Mustard 3  to    4 

Okra 3  to    4 

Spinach 3  to    4 

Tomato 2  to    3 

Turnip 5  to    6 

Pepper 2  to    3 

Radish 4  to    5 

Salsify 2  to    3 

Lavender 2  to    3 

Sweet  Marjoram 2  to    3 

Summer  Savory 1  to    2 

Sage 2  to    3 

Thyme 2  to    3 

"Wormwood  ...  2  to    3 


THE  POTATO. 

The  potato  is  one  of  the  leading  food  staples  of  this  country,  the 
yield  in  favorable  seasons  aggregates  nearly  if  not  quite  200,000,000 
bushels,  and  Colorado  is  already  becoming  noted  for  the  size  and  excel- 
lence of  its  product  of  the  great  tuber. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  crop  in  Northern  Colorado 
is  a  good  sandy  loam,  with  clayey  sub-soil.  Early  and  deep  plowing  in 
the  spring  is  recommended,  in  order  to  have  the  land  ready  to  receive 
and  hold  the  moisture  that  falls  at  this  season.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  by  planting  from  May  15th  to  June  1st.  Some  plant  sooner 
than  this  to  secure  advantage  of  the  early  market,  but  the  yield  will  be 
lighter,  tubers  smaller  in  size,  and  the  crop  uncertain. 

The  general  practice  is  to  use  medium  and  small  sized  potatoes  for 
planting,  and  if  the  seed  used  is  sound  and  ripe  at  digging  time  the  small 
ones  will  give  as  good  returns  as  if  large  seed  is  used.  Cut  the  large  ones 
twice  in  two  and  the  small  ones  once  for  planting.  Avoid  cutting  peed  too 
small  in  this  dry  climate  as  it  is  liable  to  wither  and  become  dried  up 
before  it  has  time  to  sprout.  For  the  same  reason  never  cut  seed  many 
days  before  planting  as  it  is  apt  to  become  dry  and  worthless. 

PLANTING. 

The  old  method  is  still  adhered  to  by  some  of  furrowing  out  with 
plow  and  dropping  by  hand.  But  when  a  large  acreage  is  to  be  put  in 
the  two-horse  planter  is  generally  used.  Among  the  several  kinds  in  use 
the  one  that  is  regarded  as  among  the  safest  and  best  is  made  by  fixing  a 
frame  on  the  running  gear  of  a  walking  cultivator,  with  a  long  shoe  in 
front  to  make  the  furrow,  and  two  oval  shields  in  the  rear  to  do  the  cov- 
ering. By  fixing  a  hopper  on  top  to  hold  the  seed,  with  a  spout  down 
to  the  furrow,  and  arranging  a  lead  for  the  dropper,  one  man  can  do  the 
planting  as  fast  as  an  ordinary  team  can  walk. 

Another  kind  is  made  in  a  similar  way  out  01  a  two-horse  corn 
planter,  which  will  plant  two  rows  at  once,  but  this  kind  requires  two 
droppers  and  one  driver.  Four  horses  are  used  abreast  and  more  acres 


82  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

can  be  planted  than  by  the  first  method,  but  it  is  more  difficult  and  expen- 
sive to  operate. 

Before  beginning  to  put  the  seed  in  mark  the  ground  off  in 
straight  rows,  from  three  and  one-half  to  four  feet  apart.  Plant  the  seed 
about  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

If  the  ground  is  weedy  it  is  best  to  harrow  just  as  the  plants  are  com- 
ing up.  If  they  are  free  from  weeds,  start  the  cultivator  as  soon  as  the 
potatoes  are  well  out  of  the  ground  and  cultivate  deep  and  thoroughly. 
This  will  keep  the  ground  loose  around  the  plants  and  between  the  rows. 
If  weeds  come  in  so  close  to  the  plants  that  they  cannot  be  covered  or 
rooted  out  with  the  cultivator,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  go  through 
with  hoes  and  cut  them  all  out,  as  a  crop  of  potatoes  and  weeds  cannot  be 
successfully  raised  at  the  same  time. 

IRRIGATION. 

All  potato  growers  agree  that  the  longer  the  vines  can  be  kept  grow- 
ing without  irrigation,  the  better  for  the  crop;  but  when  they  begin  to 
wither  and  turn  yellow  around  the  roots,  it  is  time  to  water  them.  When 
this  condition  is  observed,  furrow  the  rows  out  with  the  shovel  plow  with 
wings  attached.  Make  deep  channels  so  that  the  water  will  not  run  up 
around  the  vines,  and  also  arrange  so  that  the  lower  ends  of  the  rows  will 
not  be  flooded.  This  is  an  important  precaution,  as  permitting  the  water 
to  flow  over  on  the  plants  would  prove  fatal  to  them.  With  right  man- 
agement two  irrigations  are  all  that  is  necessary  to  raise  a  crop,  and 
frequently  one  watering  will  be  sufficient  if  applied  at  the  right  time. 
As  soon  as  the  ground  becomes  dried  so  that  it  will  not  be  sticky  in  work- 
ing and  before  it  has  time  to  bake,  cultivate  the  soil  up  loose  and  deep  as 
before.  The  crop  in  Colorado  matures  usually  about  October,  when  it  is 
ready  to  be  dug. 

HARVESTING. 

No  successful  potato-digging  machine  has  yet  been  introduced,  but 
one  or  two  have  been  tried  that  do  fairly  well,  and  work  much  faster  than 
by  hand  if  the  soil  is  moderately  dry  at  the  time  of  harvesting.  Until 
these  machines  are  perfected,  which  they  undoubtedly  will  be  in  time,  the 
potato  fork  will  be  most  generally  used.  Some  growers  use  the  plow,  but 
with  indifferent  success. 

If  the  crop  is  to  be  marketed  at  digging  time,  the  best  method  is  to  go 
along  the  rows  and  pick  up  the  merchantable  potatoes  first,  and  after- 


THE    POTATO.  83 

wards  gather  the  smaller  sizes  and  those  to  be  saved  for  seed.  Sacks 
should  be  distributed  the  entire  length  of  the  field,  and  have  the  pickers 
each  take  a  row  and  work  abreast,  with  one  man  to  shake  down  the  sacks 
and  sew  them.  This  man  should  see  that  the  pickers  do  their  work  well, 
and  not  permit  them  to  put  in  small,  scabby  dr  inferior  potatoes  with 
those  intended  for  market.  Carelessness  in  this  particular  will  tell  when 
the  crop  is  placed  on  sale.  If  they  are  to  be  stored,  then  the  best  way  is 
to  gather  all — little  and  big — and  run  them  into  dugouts  or  cellars  made 
for  that  purpose,  where  they  can  be  sorted  in  the  winter  time,  when  labor 
is  much  cheaper. 

In  this  way,  the  yield  can  be  harvested  for  one-third  less  than  it  can 
be  when  they  are  sorted  and  sacked  at  digging  time.  Potatoes  will  keep 
well  in  Colorado  through  the  winter  in  dugouts,  cellars  or  warehouses, 
either  sacked  or  loose,  with  protection  against  freezing,  and  with  ventil- 
ation on  mild  days.  With  these  precautions  they  will  go  through  from 
October  to  March  with  from  3J  to  5  per  cent,  shrinkage,  as  they  scarcely 
ever  rot  in  this  dry  climate. 

POTATO  CELLAR. 

Every  farmer  or  potato  grower,  to  any  extent,  should  have  a  "dug- 
out" cellar.  This  can  be  constructed  with  little  expense,  compared  with 
other  buildings.  A  site  should  be  selected  near  which  water  will  not 
have  to  run.  Excavations  can  be  done  mostly  with  team  and  scraper,  and 
should  be  made  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  feet.  In  dimensions,  the  cellar 
should  be  twice  as  long  as  wide,  and  if  the  earth  is  left  sloping  all  around 
the  inside  of  the  excavation,  no  walling-up  will  be  necessary. 

Make  wide  doors  in  the  south  end,  and  scoop  out  a  run-way  for  some 
distance  back  from  the  entrance,  so  that  loads  can  be  easily  hauled  out  of 
the  cellar  with  teams. 

Set  two  rows  of  posts  six  by  six,  eight  feet  high,  about  eight  feet  apart 
lengthwise  of  the  cellar,  and  one-third  distance  from  each  i-ide  put  string- 
ers ou  top,  running  lengthwise.  For  rafters,  large  sized  poles  or  small 
logs  may  be  used,  placing  them  the  same  distances  apart  across  the  top, 
from  one  bent  to  another.  Cover  first  with  boards,  then  straw,  after 
which  place  a  foot  or  so  of  dirt  on  top.  Before  the  roof  is  completed, 
spouts  should  be  placed  along  each  side,  say  ten  feet  apart,  which  will 
secure  ventilation,  and  also  to  use  in  shooting  the  potatoes  into  the  cellar.* 

*NOTE— The  illustration  only  shows  the  shoot  on  one  side. 


84 


HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 


These  spouts  are  usually  made  of  boards.  The  accompanying  illustration 
will  show  front  elevation  of  the  cellar  and  its  appearance  when  completed. 
The  cost  of  one  thirty  by  sixty  feet  would  be  about  $150.  When  ready  to 
move  or  market  the  potatoes,  back  the  wagon  down  into  the  cellar  by 
hand,  and  haul  the  load  out  with  teams.  This  will  save  the  labor  of 
carrying  them  out,  a  sack  at  a  time,  on  the  back.  Cellars  are  sometimes 
made  with  entrances  at  both  ends,  so  that  wagonk  may  be  driven  in  at  one 
door  and  out  at  the  other,  and  also  so  that  a  team  may  turn  or  back 
around  in  them. 

*  The   best  varieties  for  a  general  crop  around  Greeley  are  the  Mam- 
moth Pearl,  Kose  Seedling,  Snow  Flake  and  Early  Rose.     The  Ohio  and 


Convenient  Potato  Cellar. 

a,  boards;  6,  straw;  c,  dirt;  d,  posts  running  lengthwise  of  cellar;  h,  door;  g,  shoot 
and  ventilation;  i,  bottom  of  pit. 

Beauty  of  Hebron  do  well  in  special  localities.  Of  the  above  the  Rose 
Seedling  and  Mammoth  Pearl  are  the  best  yielders.  The  Snow  Flake  is 
not  as  heavy  a  producer,  but  is  a  fine  quality  and  an  excellent  keeper. 
Average  yield  one  year  with  another  is,  with  field  culture,  one  hundred 
bushels  to  the  acre.  This  return  is  often  largely  exceeded.  During  the 
year  1887  two  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre  was  not  uncommon,  and  in  a 
few  instances  even  this  figure  was  doubled. 


INSECT  ENEMIES  AND  REMEDIES. 

BY    PROFESSOR    JAMES    CASSIDAY. 

4 

Insects  are  among  the  most  formidable  enemies  to  the  successful  culture 
of  orchard  and  small  fruits  in  Colorado,  as  elsewhere,  and  to  combat  them 
successfully  requires  an  exact  knowledge  of  their  life,  history  and  habits. 
Irrigating  as  we  do,  however,  to  promote  the  growth  of  crops  enables  us 
•to  hold  in  check  some  of  these  pests  which  in  adjoining  States  prove  so 
injurious  to  the  labors  of  both  farmer  and  gardener. 

Our  injurious  insects  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  according  to  the 
construction  of  their  mouth  parts.  First,  those  that  eat  the  structure  of 
plants,  and  having  jaws  adapted  to  this  end  can  only  be  destroyed  through 
the  stomach,  by  poisoning  their  favorite  food  plants.  The  second  class 
have  their  mouth  parts  in  the  form  of  a  beak  by  means  of  which  they 
•extract  the  juices  of  plants,  and  hence  enfeeble  if  not  destroy  them. 
This  class  of  insects,  not  eating  the  structure  of  plants,  can  be  destroyed 
only  by  the  direct  contact  of  the  remedies  applied.  Hence  the  remedies 
employed  are  grouped  into  two  classes.  First,  arsenical  poisons,  killing 
insect  life  through  the  stomach  ;  the  second,  represented  by  alkalies,  acids 
and  oil  mixtures,  are  designed  to  be  effective  only  by  direct  contact. 
White  hellebore  is  a  vegetable  poison  and  is  effective  in  destroying  insect 
life  in  both  ways.  Some  insects  cannot  be  combatted  successfully  by  the 
application  of  remedies ;  they  must  be  met  by  preventive  measures,  by 
which  the  plant  is  protected  from  injury,  or  the  known  habits  of  the 
insects  are  so  circumvented  as  to  rentier  them  powerless  to  do  much  injury. 

Preventive  measures  are,  first,  keeping  the  plants  in  a  thrifty  condi- 
tion. Every  observant  plant  grower  will  endorse  this.  Second,  a 
judicious  rotation  of  crops,  and  fall  plowing. 

ARSENICAL    POISONS. 

Paris  green  is,  without  doubt,  chief  among  the  arsenical  compounds, 
and  the  most  practical  for  the  destruction  of  insects  that  eat  the  structure 
of  plants.  If  pure  it  is  effective  in  proportion  of  one  pound  to  one  hun- 
dred gallons  of  water.  Where  any  large  number  of  trees  or  plants  are  to 


86  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

be  treated,  the  liquid  in  quantity  is  put  in  a  barrel  and  drawn  on  a  wagon 
with  a  good  force  pump  attached  to  the  barrel.  To  the  pump  is  attached 
a  hose  through  which,  and  a  "Nixon  Cyclone  Nozzle,"  the  liquid  is  scat- 
tered in  the  form  of  a  finely  divided  spray. 

In  spraying  trees,  a  light  pole  about  ten  feet  in  length  is  attached, 
by  means  of  which  the  spray  is  brought  closer  to  the  trees  and  avoids 
•  wetting  and  inhaling  of  the  poison  by  the  operator. 

Arsenical  solutions  need  to  be  frequently  agitated  to  keep  the  powder 
in  suspension,  and  to  prevent  its  settling.  The  greatest  care  should  be 
exercised  in  the  handling  -of  poisons  that  they  be  not  inhaled,  nor 
permitted  to  come  in  contact  with  the  skin  when  broken,  nor  used  on 
plants  soon  to  be  used  as  food.  The  mineral  should  be  well  mixed  and 
applied  with  great  force  to  the  tree. 

White  hellebore  is  a  vegetable  poison.  It  kills  insect  life  by  contact 
as  well  as  on  being  taken  into  the  stomach.  It  will  cause  death  to  per- 
sons if  taken  in  any  quantity,  hence  it  should  be  handled  with  care.  It 
is  a  standard  remedy  for  the  currant  worm  and  the  various  species  of  plant 
lice,  which  are  the  bane  of  plant  growers  in  a  dry  climate.  It  is  best 
applied  as -a  liquid,  combining  one  pound  of  the  powder  with  twenty-five 
to  thirty  gallons  of  water,  using  the  fcrce  pump  and  nozzle  as  in  the  case 
of  Paris  green. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  without  doubt  the  most  effective  of  all  the 
remedies  employed  to  destroy  insects  that  have  mouth  parts  adapted  to 
sucking  the  juices  of  plants,  and  it  is  effective  only  as  it  comes  in  contact 
with  their  bodies.  The  best  emulsion  is  that  made  from  the  formula  used 
by  Dr.  Kiley,  the  eminent  entomologist.  It  is  as  follows: 

Kerosene,  2  gallons. 
Soap,  3/2  pound. 
Water,  1  gallon. 

Heat  the  water,  dissolving  the  soap  in  it,  and  then  add  it  boiling  hot 
to  the  kerosene.  Churn  the  mixture  forcibly  by  means  of  a  force  pump 
and  spray  nozzle  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  when  the  mixture  will  have 
assumed  a  creamy  appearance,  the  globules  of  oil  will  have  disappeared, 
and  the  result  is  a  staple  emulsion.  Before  using,  dilute  with  from  nine  to 
fifteen  parts  of  water  to  one  of  the  emulsion.  Good  judgment  must  be 
exercised  in  regard  to  the  strength  at  which  it  is  applied.  For  if  applied 
at  full  strength  to  plants  at  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season  it  will 
certainly  kill  them.  Later  in  the  season  they  would  stand  a  stronger 
dose  with  impunity. 


INSECT    ENEMIES    AND    REMEDIES.  8/ 

This  remedy  is  effective  against  plant  lice,  the  grape  and  apple  leaf 
hopper,  and  the  climbing  cut-worms,  occasionally  so  destructive  to  useful 
vegetation  in  Colorado.  It  is  applied  by  means  of  the  force  pump  and 
nozzle,  already  spoken  of,  observing  to  discharge  the  fluid  with  consider- 
able force,  so  as  to  produce  a  very  finely  divided  spray.  Fields'  force 
pump  is  considered  the  best 'for  this  purpose,  and  the  Nixon  Cyclone 
Nozzle  the  best  of  its  kind. 

Birds  are  valuable  aids  to  the  tree  grower  in  the  destruction  of 
noxious  insects.  Where  it  not  for  the  blackbird,  our  cottonwoods  would 
be  destroyed  by  the  cottonwood  beetle.  The  quantity  of  eggs  and  larva 
of  insects  destroyed  annually  by  birds  is  astonishingly  large.  The  black- 
bird and  robin,  it  is  true,  are  predacious  .on  useful  plants,  but  we  could 
not  dispense  with  their  services  in  ridding  us  of  an  excess  of  injurious 
insect  life.  The  planting  of  wind-breaks,  shelter-belts  and  masses  of  trees 
and  shrubs  generally  promotes  the  domestication  of  birds,  in  affording 
them  shelter  for  their  nests. 


DESTRUCTIVE    INSECTS. 

APPLE  LEAF  ROLLER  (Tortrix-rosaeana}. 

The  larva  of  this  leaf  roller  is  very  destructive  to  the  foliage  of  the 
apple  tree  early  in  the  season  in  Colorado.  While  it  is  a  general  feeder, 
it  is  found  most  commonly  upon  plants  of  the  family  Rosacere.  Leaf- 
rolling  insects  of  all  kinds  may  readily  be  destroyed  by  the  wet  mixture 
of  Paris  green. 

CABBAGE  WORM  (Peris  Rupee.}. 

This  well-known  pest  was  present  in  Northern  Colorado  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1887  in  large  numbers.  It  was  our  most  common  butterfly.  It 
was  imported  from  England,  and  first  appeared  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Quebec  in  1859.  It  has  since  spread  all  over  the  United  States.  The 
butterfly  is  white,  with  black  spots  upon  its  wings.  It  is  two-brooded,  the 
second  being  the  most  injurious.  The  first  specimens  appeared  early  in 
March.  Pyrethrum  is  the  most  effective  remedy  of  any  in  use  for  the 
destruction  of  this  pest.  The  powder  is  best  applied  by  means  of  a 
Woodason  bellows.  An  active  man  should  be  able  to  sprinkle  two  or 
three  acres  per  day. 


88  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

CUT- WORMS  (Agrotians). 

Several  species  of  these  worms  are  injurious.  The  moths  are  dingy 
in  color,  and  fly  mostly  at  night.  The  worms  generally  feed  at  night ; 
some,  however,  feed  during  broad  daylight,  partially  concealed  by  the 
dense  foliage  of  the  plants  attacked.  An  undetermined  species  was 
alarmingly  destructive  during  the  summer  of  1887,  feeding  with  equal 
avidity  upon  the  foliage  of  the  herb,  and  the  unripened  fruit  of  the  to- 
mato. 

For  the  species  that  feed  at  night,  the  only  effective  remedy  is  the 
one  recommended  by  Dr.  Riley,  which  is  to  poison  with  Paris  green  suc- 
culent vegetation,  and  place  on  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the  plant  at- 
tacked. As  against  the  species -feed ing  in  daytime,  the  kerosene  emulsion 
is  very  effective,  observing,  in  the  case  of  plants  with  very  tender  foliage,  not 
to  apply  too  strong.  Where  the  cabbage  is  attacked  late  in  summer,  no 
application  of  remedies  to  the  foliage  will  be  of  the  least  avail.  When 
clover  and  alfalfa  fields  are  attacked,  a  good  irrigation  is  very  effective. 

THE  CURRANT  BORER  (Aegeria  Tipuliformis). 

This  is  an  imported  insect  very  destructive  in  Colorado.  It  also 
attacks  the  gooseberry,  though  less  frequently.  Its  color  is  blue,  with 
yellow  bands,  resembling  a  wasp,  but  really  belonging  to  a  Lepidopterous 
family  of  borers.  The  moths  appear  in  June,  laying  their  eggs  upon 
sterns  of  the  current  season's  growth,  near  the  base  of  a  bud,  which  soon 
hatch,  the  caterpillar  soon  eating  its  way  to  the  pith,  where  it  remains  a 
year,  emerging  the  following  season  as  a  moth.  The  yellowish,  unthrifty 
character  of  the  foliage  indicates  the  presence  of  the  borer.  The  affected 
stems  should  be  pruned  off  in  the  early  spring  and  burned.  It  is  the  only 
effective  remedy.  The  pruning,  too,  will  insure  a  more  thrifty  growth, 
much  larger  fruit,  and  of  better  quality. 

THE  CODLING  MOTH  (Carpocapsa  Pomonellu}. 

This  insect  is,  without  doubt,  the  worst  enemy  of  the  apple.  It 
makes  its  appearance  early  in  spring,  about  the  time  the  apple  trees  are 
in  blossom,  and  commences  laying  its  eggs,  usually  one  on  the  blossom  or 
calyx  end  of  each  apple  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  set.  The  eggs  hatch  in 
from  five  to  ten  days,  on  which  the  young  worm  eats  its  way  to  the  center 
of  the  fruit,  where  it  remains  twenty  to  thirty  days.  It  then  leaves  the 
apple  and  seeks  some  secure  hiding  place,  usually  the  rough  bark  of  the 


INSECT    ENEMIES    AND    REMEDIES.  89 

tree,  where  it  spins  a  papery  cocoon  and  passes  into  the  pupa  state.  It 
remains  in  this  state  from  nine  to  fifteen  days,  when  it  comes  forth  a  per- 
fect moth,  and  proceeds  to  repeat  the  cycle  of  existence  just  noted.  The 
second  brood  is  also  highly  injurious.  The  most  of  the  larva  from  this 
brood  spin  up  during  late  summer  and  fall,  to  reappear  the  following  sea- 
son as  a  moth.  By  far  the  best  remedy  for  this  insect  is  Paris  green,  in 
the  proportion  of  a  teaspoonful  in  one  pailful  of  water,  observing  to  stir 
frequently,  and  to  scatter  the  water  in  fine  spray  on  all  of  the  fruit.  The 
poison  must  be  applied  when  the  fruit  is  about  the  size- of  a  pea.  Two 
applications  will  generally  be  sufficient.  Dr.  Riley  says  that  Paris  green 
may  be  used  on  the  fruit  of  the  apple  in  Colorado  without  fear  of  danger- 
ous results  to  consumers  of  the  fruit  so  treated. 

An  application  of  Paris  green,  besides  destroying  the  codling  moth, 
is  equally  effective  against  the  leaf  rollers,  and  other  caterpillars  which 
defoliate  our  trees  thus  early  in  the  season. 

PLANT  LICE  (Aphididce.} 

The  plant  lice  are  among  the  most  injurious  of  insect  life  in  a  dry, 
warm  climate.  Among  orchard  fruits  the  plum  suffers  most.  The 
cabbage  and  late  turnip  are  also  very  subject  to  attack  by  them.  Either 
the  hellebore  mixture  or  the  kerosene  emulsion  will  destroy  them,  dilut- 
ing the  latter  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  emulsion  to  thirteen  parts  of 
water. 

Owing  to  the  universality  of  plant  lice,  and  the  diffiulty  experienced 
sometimes  in  destroying  them,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  keep  all 
growing  plants  in  a  thrifty  condition.  They  are  about  certain  to  infest 
plants  or  trees  in  an  enfeebled  condition,  so  that  measures  tending  to  pro- 
mote thrifty  growth  will  be  helpful  in  warding  off  their  attacks. 
COLORADO  APPLE  £EAF  BEETLE  (Graptodosa  Foliacea.) 

This  beetle  and  its  larva  are  particularly  destructive  to  young  apple 
trees,  and  to  the  grape.  As  it  likes  to  feed  within  three  or  four  feet  of 
the  ground,  it  is  only  injurious  to  nursery  stock  or  young  trees  in  orchard. 
It  will  not  feed  upon  the  pear,  and  it  exhibits  a  preference  for  thin-leaved 
varieties  of  the  apple  and  grape.  The  Paris  green  remedy  will  remove 
them  readily— observing  to  apply  the  remedy  early,  so  as  to  destroy  the 
first  brood.* 


*NOTE— Air  slacked  lime  dusted  on  the  foliage,  when  moist,  will  often  repel 
this  pest  —A.  E.  G. 


gO  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

RASPBERRY  SAW  FLY  (Selandria  Rubi.) 

The  larva  of  the  saw  fly  are  injurious  to  the  rose,  the  plum  and  the 
raspberry.  The  greenish  slugs  destroy  the  pulpy  portion  of  the  leaf, 
feeding  on  its  underside,  and  are  generally  present  in  numbers  sufficiently 
numerous  so  that  the  foliage  looks  as  if  scorched  by  fire.  One  or  two 
applications  of  the  wet  mixture  of  hellebore  will  be  found  effective  in 
destroying  them. 

We  follow  Professor  Cassiday's  paper  with  a  few  comments  on 
FRUIT  TREE  BLIGHT. 

As  there  is  neither  a  certain  known  remedy  nor  preventive  for 
apple  and  pear  tree  blight,  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  discuss  the  disease 
here.  Probably  the  best  safeguard  that  can  be  adopted  is  to  plant 
orchards  on  high,  well  drained  sites,  and  in  soils  rich  enough  to  induce 
a  thrifty  annual  growth.  If  trees  can  be  protected  from  sudden  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  and,  in  fact,  from  all  immoderate  or  unseasonable 
changes  in  temperature,  so  much  the  better.  It  may  be  stated  on  general 
principles  that  whatever  tends  to  impair  the  vitality  of  a  tree,  renders  it 
more  liable  to  disease  of  any  kind. 

While  scientific  investigations  disclose  the  presence  of  bacteria  in 
cases  of  tree  blight,  it  is  by  no  means  a  settled  question  that  these  (micro- 
coccus  amylovorus)  are  the  true  cause.  Professors  Arthur,  of  New  York, 
and  Burrill,  of  Illinois,  maintain,  I  believe,  that  they  are,  while  others 
are  inclined  to  the  view  that  bacteria  are  rather  an  accompaniment  or 
result  of  a  diseased  condition. 

Sections  like  Colorado  are  likely  to  be  much  more  exempt  from  the 
trouble  than  many  portions  of  the  East. 


ALFALFA,  CHILIAN  CLOVER,  OR  LUCERNE. 

(Medicare  Satival) 

HISTORICAL. 


Alfalfa  or  Lucerne. 

This  great  perennial  forage  plant  is  one  of  very  remote  origin,  and 
seems  to  have  held  a  leading  place  among  grasses  from  the  earliest  times. 
When  first  known  it  is  said  to  have  flourished  in  the  South  of  Europe 


92  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

under  its  Latin  name — Medicago  Saliva.  At  a  latter  period  it  was  called 
lucerne,  which  is  really  its  proper  modern  name,  although  in  Colorado 
and  the  West,  the  Spanish  term,  alfalfa,  is  adhered  to,  as  it  comes  to  us 
from  the  vast  pampas  of  South  America,  where  this  grass  grows  wild. 

Its  history  has  been  traced  back  for  more  than  twenty-five  centuries, 
and  writers  claim  that  it  was  cultivated  in  Greece  five  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  that  during  the  Eoman  Conquest  it  found  its 
way  to  the  latter  country,  where  it  is  cultivated  and  highly  esteemed  at 
the  present  time.  From  Rome  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  France  and  Spain,  and  subsequently  to  South  America  and  Mexico. 
The  plant  seems  to  have  been  brought  to  California  under  the  name  of 
Chilian  clover,  at  an  early  period  in  the  history  of  the  State,  and  from 
there  has  been  distributed  to  different  points  in  the  United  States. 

Although  cultivated  here  scarcely  more  than  a  dozen  years,  alfalfa 
has  already  taken  a  leading  place  in  the  agricultural  economy  of  Colorado. 
Its  cultivation  is  increasing  by  thousands  of  acres  each  year,  and  to-day 
no  one  is  prepared  to  say  what  AVC  would  do  witln-ut  it  in  this  State. 

Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  specially  adapted  to  the  dry  climate 
and  perpetual  sunshine  of  this  region,  and,  taken  one  year  with  another, 
is  among  the  safest  and  most  profitable  of  farm  products.  When  once 
thoroughly  established,  it  has  remarkable  vitality,  as  the  roots  penetrate 
the  earth  to  the  depth  of  from  ten  to  twenty  feet  or  even  more.  It  is  said  that 
fields  of  this  crop  in  parts  of  South  America,  known  to  be  centuries  old, 
are  still  in  full  vigor  and  productiveness. 

SEEEING. 

The  ground  should  be  prepared  for  this  as  for  the  average  farm  crop. 
A  rich,  deep  sandy  loam  is  best  adapted  to  alfalfa,  as  it  is  a  heavy  feeder, 
and  the  better  the  soil  the  quicker  and  stronger  the  growth.  Seeding  may 
be  done  either  by  sowing  broadcast  and  harrowing  in,  or  by  drilling  in; 
the  former  method  is  generally  practiced,  and  is  usually  found  to  avoid 
the  danger  of  getting  the  seed  so  deep  that  it  may  not  germinate  well. 
Occasionally,  however,  good  results  are  secured  by  drilling  in,  and  only 
about  half  the  quantity  of  seed  is  used  that  is  required  in  sowing  broad- 
cast. But,  as  remarked,  broadcasting  is  practiced  most  generally,  and,  on 
an  average,  twenty-five  pounds  of  seed  are  used  to  the  acre.  The  more 
thickly  and  evenly  distributed,  the  finer  and  better  the  quality  of  the 
grass.  If  the  stand  is  thin,  the  growth  is  apt  to  be  coarse  and  woody. 


ALFALFA.  93 

Formerly  the  practice  was  to  wait  until  all  danger  from  frost  was  over,  in 
the  spring,  before  sowing;  but  now  most  farmers  prefer  to  sow  as  early  as 
possible  and  take  the  chances  of  injury  from  frost  (thus  securing  the 
benefits  of  spring  moisture),  rather  than  incur  the  damage  apt  to  result 
by  drouth  from  too  late  sowing. 

It  is  important  to  select  good,  clean  seed,  even  at  a  higher  price,  than 
to  use  an  inferior  article,  that  is  liable  to  be  mixed  with  noxious  weeds 
and  worthless  chaff.  Oats  and  barley  are  sometimes  sown  with  alfalfa, 
and  good  results  received,  where  there  is  sufficient  moisture  to  bring  up 
both  crops  without  irrigation  for  that  purpose.  This  practice  is  recom- 
mended by  some  and  disapproved  by  others.  On  weedy  ground  it  is  often 
advisable  to  sow  with  oats  or  barley. 

After  the  grain  is  cut,  the  grass  is  generally  able  to  protect  itself  from 
weeds.  Irrigation  should  follow  the  cutting  of  the  grain,  when  the  grass 
will  come  forward  rapidly.  If  the  seed  is  sown  without  grain,  do  not 
water  the  young  growth  (unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  save  it  from 
burning  up)  until  a  few  inches  high,  because  the  ground  is  liable  to  bake 
and  the  tender  leaves  to  sun-scald.  If,  however,  the  stand  begins  to  droop 
and  turn  yellow,  apply  the  water. 

The  first  season's  yield  is  usually  light,  but  by  running  ovfir  with  a 
mower  early,  one  fair  crop  may  be  had  the  next  cutting — four  or  five 
weeks  later.  The  second  year,  nearly,  if  not  quite,  a  full  crop  will  be 
secured,  which  means,  as  a  rule  in  Colorado,  three  good  cuttings  each  year. 
Occasionally  a  fourth  cutting  is  taken  off;  but  this  is  apt  to  be  immature, 
and  difficult  to  cure  properly.  In  portions  of  California,  where  there  is 
almost  perpetual  summer,  from  eight  to  ten  cuttings  are  secured  annually 
under  irrigation. 

Seeding  is  sometimes  done  during  summer  and  autumn,  and  even  late 
in  the  fall;  but  this  plan  is  not  recommended,  except  under  very  favorable 
conditions,  as  failures  are  more  likely  to  result  than  from  spring  sowing. 

To  those  in  the  "rain  belt"  who  propose  to  sow  alfalfa,  the  chief  hope 
of  success  will  be  in  selecting  the  best  soil  possible,  with  deep  plowing 
and  early  rowing.  If  the  roots  can  once  get  thoroughly  established,  a 
fair  crop  may  be  raised  without  irrigation— under  favorable  conditions. 

IRRIGATION. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  water  thoroughly  after  each  cutting;  but  one 
should  be  governed  by  the  conditions  of  the  soil  as  to  moisture.  If  it  is 


94  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

already  moistened  deeply,  either  by  reason  of  heavy  rains  or  seepage  water 
in  the  sub-soil,  this  of  itself  may  be  sufficient.  It  not  unfrequently  hap- 
pens that  the  soil  is  so  well  moistened  from  seepage  alone  as  to  require 
scarcely  any  irrigation. 

Water  should  never  be  allowed  to  stand  long  upon  alfalfa,  nor  to 
freeze  on  ground  that  is  seeded  to  it,  as  there  is  danger  of  killing  the  roots 
by  want  of  care  in  these  particulars. 

HARVESTING. 

Next  in  importance  to  having  a  thick,  even  stand  of  grass  is  the  mat- 
ter of  harvesting  at  the  right  time.  Some  experience  is  needed  to  deter- 
mine this  point;  but  the  generally  accepted  rule  now  is  to  "cut  when  the 
plant  is  just  coming  into  blossom,"  and  not  to  wait  until  it  is  in  full  bloom 
and  ready  to  go  to  seed.  Here  is  where  mistakes  are  generally  made,  as 
it  is  easy  to  ruin  the  cutting  by  failure  either  to  cut  "in  the  nick  of  time" 
or  to  cure  properly ;  in  other  words,  it  means  simply  the  difference  be- 
tween clean,  sweet,  nutritious  and  palatable  food,  and  dried-up,  woody, 
innutritious,  indigestible,  worthless  stuff.  In  this  connection  I  quote  from 
a  clear-headed  writer  (Mr.  McNeal),  before  the  Wheat  Ridge  Farmers' 
Institute,  of  Jefferson  County,  Colorado. 

"  Alfalfa  is  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  sugar  and  albu- 
men it  contains,  which  makes  it,  when  properly  handled,  a  sweet  and 
palatable  feed  for  stock.  Cut  when  just  coming  into  bloom,  it  contains 
one-third  more  nutritive  properties  than  when  fully  ripened,  which  are 
lost  if  allowed  to  form  seed,  and  makes  the  hay  both  innutritious  and 
indigestible.  So,  if  alfalfa  is  cut  at  the  proper  time,  the  juices  are  in  a 
condition  to  thicken  and  become  sufficiently  dried,  so  that  little  sun  will 
be  required  to  cure  to  that  degree  that  the  hay  may  be  safely  placed  in 
the  stack,  to  go  through  a  natural  chemical  change  which  gives  it  its  fra- 
grant aroma.  Some  allow  their  hay  to  stand  until  it  is  all  dried  up  and 
nothing  but  a  woody  stock  remains.  When  stock  are  forced  to  obtain 
subsistence  from  such  dried*up  stuff,  it  compels  them  to  enter  upon  a 
struggle  for  existence  in  which  they  get  worsted.  Make  hay  while  the 
sun  shines  and  make  it  early.  Do  not  wait  until  all  the  juices  and  the 
sweetness  of  the  plants  have  been  absorbed  by  the  seeds,  leaving  nothing 
but  poor,  dry,  chippy,  dusty  stuff.  Start  the  mower  early,  cure  well,  stack 
properly  and  carefully,  and  so  have  nice,  sweet,  bright  hay,  and  get  the 
highest  price  you  can  for  it. 


ALFALFA.  95 

The  success  of  wintering  stock  'depends  largely  on  the  character  of 
the  hay  crop.  This  may  be  almost  worthless  from  either  of  two  causes : 
First,  from  being  injured  in  the  curing;  second,  from  not  being  cut  in 
season,  either  of  which  is  alike  prejudicial  to  its  quality.  There  is  a 
medium  in  the  process  of  curing  hay,  that  acts  favorably  and  avoids  any 
injury  that  may  arise  from  too  little  or  too  much  curing.  Too  little  cur- 
ing is  a  careless  manner  of  taking  hay  to  the  stack  before  the  external 
moisture  is  all  expelled,  and  the  grass  has  not  had  time  to  wilt  properly. 
Too  much  curing  is  allowing  it  to  dry  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  hard  and 
brittle,  and  the  leaves  are  shaken  off — which  is  the  sweetest  part  of  alfalfa. 
Large  quantities  of  hay  are  spoiled  from  being  hauled  a  little  on  the 
green  side,  or  when  a  little  too  moist,  and  in  this  condition  there  is  an 
accumulation  of  unnatural  heating,  and  subsequent  mustiness.  It  is  often 
injured  by  being  exposed  too  much  to  the  sun.  This  not  only  causes  the 
volatile  aroma  to  escape,  but  much  of  the  coloring  matter  also,  as  is 
shown  in  its  bleached  appearance.  The  milk  and  butter  produced  by  feed 
of  this  kind  will  be  deficient,  alike  in  color,  flavor  and  quantity.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  fodder  plants  in  the  world,  but  the  present 
method  of  curing,  by  exposure  to  a  hot  sun,  reduces  the  crop  somewhat  in 
flavor  and  value.  A  question  for  the  future  is  ensilage — that  is,  storing  it 
when  green  and  watery — thus  preserving  all  the  nutritive  qualities.  This 
method  is  meeting  with  great  success  in  Europe  and  some  parts  of  the 
East." 

The  following  instructions  about  making  the  hay  are  given  by  Mr. 
Lee,  in  his  catalogue,  and  are  perhaps  as  good  "fair  weather"  suggestions 
as  can  be  made. 

"  In  making  hay,  cut  one  day,  let  it  lay  on  the  swath  and  cure  all 
next  day,  raking  up  early  on  the  morning  of  the  third ;  if  the  sun  should 
not  shine  clear,  a  longer  time  may  be  required.  Never  shake  it  out  or 
turn  it  in  the  swath  in  this  country,  as  it  will  cure  perfectly  without  it, 
and  the  more  it  is  turned  and  disturbed  the  more  it  will  lose  of  its  leaves 
and  fine  stems.  Cock  it  up  immediately  after  raking,  while  yet  damp 
with  the  dew,  if  possible,  and  let  it  cure  in  the  cock  from  one  to  three 
days  before  stacking." 

A  good  average  yield  to  the  acre,  per  cutting,  is  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  two  tons — or  from  four  and  one-half  to  six  tons  for  the  season. 
Some  prominent  cultivators  are  now  using  the  third  crop  for  pasturing, 
instead  of  cutting  it.  They  turn  horses  and  cattle  upon  it,  (after  a  heavy 


96  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

frost  lias  "  cured  "  tlie  juices)  and  have  not  only  experienced  no  trouble 
from  pasturing  in  this  way,  but  claim  that  it  is  really  the  most  economi- 
cal and  profitable  way  of  using  this  cutting,  and  that  it  is  greatly  relished 
by  both  horses  and  cattle. 

If  it  is  desired  to  raise  seed  only,  the  original  seeding  should  not  be 
so  thick,  and  the  ground  should  not  be  irrigated  until  after  the  cutting. 
In  any  case  the  seed  crop  should  be  saved  from  the  first  cutting,  and 
allowed  to  fully  mature  before  harvesting.  Our  climate  is  very  favorable 
for  growing  an  excellent  quality  of  alfalfa  seed,  and  the  crop  is  profitable. 
The  average  yield  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  from  seven  to  ten  bushels,  under 
good  treatment.  Do  not  use  a  horse  rake  when  saving  the  seed,  but 
bunch  with  a  hay  fork.  An  active  man  should  follow  up  the  mower  and 
remove  the  cutting  as  it  falls  from  the  machine  so  that  it  will  be  out  of 
the  way  before  another  round  is  made.  After  the  seed  has  been  threshed 
by  a  machine  used  for  that  purpose,  it  is  better  to  run  it  through  a  fine 
sieve,  as  by  this  means  poor,  and  often  harmful  seeds,  like  the  Dodder, 
may  be  removed. 

FEEDING. 

The  first  and  second  cuttings  are  usually  preferred  for  horses,  and  the 
third  for  cows.  This  hay  should  always  be  kept  dry  for  feeding,  as'  when 
wet  it  becomes  heavy  and  soggy,  and  hence  unsafe  as  a  food,  either  for 
horses  or  cattle. 

For  milch  cows,  probably  no  hay  is  equal  to  alfalfa,  either  for  in- 
creasing the  flow  and  richness  of  the  milk,  or  for  producing  butter  of  a 
high  quality,  color  and  flavor.  But  to  achieve  this  desirable  result,  the 
hay  must  be  sweet  and  well-cured.  Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  in  fact 
nearly  all  domestic  animals,  will  thrive  and  fatten  easily  on  this  hay. 
For  road  horses,  it  is  better  to  feed  somewhat  sparingly  in  connection 
with  more  concentrated  food. 

In  this  place  we  insert  the  report  of  Professor  Blount,  of  the  Colo- 
rado Agricultural  College,  just  at  hand  as  this  article  was  ready  for  the 
press. 

"  Alfalfa  stands  at  the  head  of  all  clovers  in  nearly  all  respects.  It 
needs  no  comment.  Its  feeding  value,  and  as  a  hay  crop,  is  excelled  by 
no  other  plant.  As  hay,  its  value  may  be  seen  in  the  experiments  made 
last  year.  Four  steers  were  fed  one  month  on  it,  and  one  on  red  clover. 
They  consumed  each  from  133  to  221  pounds  more  clover  hay  per  month 


ALFALFA.  97 

than  alfalfa,  and  in  no  case  was  the  per  cent,  of  gain  less  in  alfalfa  months, 
but  considerable  more.  The  fact  may  be  clearly  seen  in  the  feeding  ex- 
periment illustrated  in  the  following  table.  Three  steers  were  fed  four 
months  on  alfalfa,  clover,  chop  and  roots.  They  consumed  in 

Oct.  and  Dec.  Gain.  Nov.  and  Jan.  Gain. 

2805  Ibs.  alfalfa.  270  Ibs.  3658  Ibs.  clover.  240  Ibs. 

558    "    chop.  675    "    chop. 

1275    "    roots.  1830    "    roots. 

"Each  steer  is  credited  the  same  amount  of  chop  and  roots  inasmuch 
as  they  were  given  in  limited  quantities,  but  of  hay  each  had  all  he  would 
eat. 

"  Taking  the  hay  as  a  base,  the  alfalfa  made  a  difference  in  gain  of 
twenty  pounds,  and  1,053  pounds  less  of  it  was  fed,  showing  clearly  its 
superior  value  for  a  feeding  plant." 

PASTURING. 

It  might  as  well  be  conceded  once  for  all  that  green  and  growing  al- 
falfa is  never  absolutely  safe  as  a  pasturage  for  cattle.  When  it  is  full  of 
juices  and  immature,  they  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  are  liable  to  gorge 
themseves  and  bloat,  if  not  fed  with  extreme  caution.  The  greener  and 
more  succulent  the  growth,  the  greater  the  danger;  and  this  is  always 
heightened  or  increased  when  the  grass  is  wet,  either  from  rains  or  heavy 
dews.  There  is  less  liability  to  this  trouble,  however,  on  fields  that  have 
received  little  or  no  irrigation.  It  is  true  that  there  is  a  difference  in 
animals  with  respect  to  this  danger  or  tendency,  and  the  one  that  eats 
moderately  and  rather  daintily  is  usually  safe.  If  the  animal  is  greedy  and 
gorges  itself,  particularly  on  an  empty  stomach,  the  gasses  are  pretty  cer- 
tain to  accumulate;  then  look  out.  The  advantages  of  afternoon  pastur- 
ing are  that  the  grass  is  usually  dry  and  the  cattle  have  at  least  partially 
satisfied  their  hunger.  But  this  cannot  always  be  relied  on  as  a  guide  ; 
nor  can  the  fact  that  plenty  of  dry  hay  has  been  fed  and  water  given  be- 
forehand. All  of  these  "perfect  preventives"  have  occasionally  failed  to 
protect.  This  is  the  testimony  of  men  of  large  experience  with  the  grass, 
and  might  as  well  be  understood.  It  is  always  best  to  be  on  the  safe  side. 
Neither  is  salt  kept  before  them  a  certain  safeguard,  as  some  claim,  yet 
it  is  advisable  to  do  so.* 


*NOTE— The  following  clipping  is  taken  from  a  leading  paper,  and  we  give  it  for 
what  it  is  worth.  Some  of  the  statements  made  may  be  open  to  question.  But  if 
stock  can  be  encouraged  to  eat  clean,  bright  straw  in  connection  with  alfalfa,  good 

7 


98 


HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 


The  times  when  alfalfa  may  be  pastured  with  comparative  safety  are, 
when  the  growth  is  fully  matured  and  ready  to  go  to  seed  (when  it  has 
taken  on  a  brownish  tinge),  and  again  when  frost  has  checked  the  growth 
and  cured  the  juices.  Experience  has  shown  that  these  periods  are  the 
ones  when  there  is  little  hazard  in  turning  in  cattle. 

Horses  are  rarely  injured,  and  swine  never,  by  pasturing.  Give  the 
porkers  free  run  on  alfalfa,  and  a  little  corn  to  "harden"  the  flesh  before 
they  are  placed  on  the  block,  and  the  work  is  complete. 

The  usual  remedies  for  bloat  in  cattle  are,  in  mild  cases,  either  to 
elevate  the  head  and  fore-quarters  of  the  animal,  by  standing  it  on  a 
stack,  manure  pile,  or  the  like,  when  the  gasses  will  often  escape;  or  to 


keep  the  mouth  open  with  a  stick  or  a  cob;  or  give  a  tablespoonful  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda;  or,  in  severe  cases,  use  a  trochar.  The  latter  is 
rather  a  harsh  remedy,  and  should  be  intelligently  performed.  Animals 
are  often  injured  by  the  unskillful  use  of  the  trochar.  The  rule  is  to 

may  possibly  result  and  some  harm  be  avoided  :  "  Many  farmers  now  stack  their 
wheat  and  barley  straw  in  their  alfalfa  pastures,  and  find  it  of  great  advantage  in 
fattening  their  stock,  increasing  the  milk  and  butter  production  of  their  dairy  cows, 
and  in  every  way  being  an  advantage  to  their  health  and  growing  qualities.  It  is 
noticed,  too,  that  both  horses  and  cattle  will  leave  alfalfa  for  days  at  a  time  to  feed 
on  straw  stacks  thus  placed  in  the  pasture." 


ALFALFA.  99 

plunge  the  trochar  into  the  region  of  the  greatest  distention  on  the  left 
side,  at  a  point  mid-way  between  the  spines  of  the  loins  last  rib  and  point 
of  the  hip,  pointing  the  trochar  in  and  downward,  and  letting  it  pass  in 
obliquely  to  avoid  the  kidneys.  (See  illustration.) 

Rumenotomy  is  the  last  and  most  difficult  operation  for  hoven,  or 
bloat,  and  is  resorted  to  only  in  desperate  cases— when  paralysis  of  the 
stomach  has  taken  place  from  engorgement.  In  this  case  the  contents  of 
the  rumen  or  paunch  must  be  removed  by  hand.  But,  as  the  operation  is 
rarely  performed  except  by  skillful  practitioners,  it  is  hardly  worth  while 
to  describe  it  here. 

COMPOSITION    OF   ALFALFA. 

Protein  1 21.19 

Fat 3.04 

Nitrogen 36.74 

Crude  Fibre 29.9  > 

Ash 9.13 


100.00 

As  a  soiling  crop,  or  fertilizer,  alfalfa  is  extremely  valuable.  Plow  it 
under ;  and  this  can  be  done  in  fall  or  early  spring,  by  using  four  good 
horses  and  a  suitable  plow ;  and  the  great  roots  will  decay  and  enrich  the 
ground  almost  beyond  conception.  Some  of  our  Greeley  farmers  have 
obtained  wonderful  crops  of  potatoes  and  grain  by  this  practice.  In  fact, 
alfalfa  does  not  exhaust,  the  soil,  but  constantly  enriches  it.  Says  Pro- 
fessor Blount :  "  As  a  fertilizer  it  has  no  superior,  if  reports  from  those 
-who  have  tested  it  are  true.  It  not  only  can  be  turned  under,  as  red 
clover  is,  but  in  the  operation  it  enriches  the  soil  and  at  the  same  time  is 
not  itself  at  all  impoverished,  but  greatly  benefitted,  even  so  far  as  to 
make  a  good  crop  itself  the  same  year  of  hay,  and  sometimes  of  seed." 

This  plant  has  been  known  to  flourish  from  sea  level  to  the  altitude 
of  seven  or  eight  thousand  feet.  In  favorable  surroundings  it  might 
succeed  even  higher  up. 

A  careful  consideration  of  the  analysis  above  given  will  demonstrate 
the  value  of  this  grass  to  the  farmer  in  the  various  uses  it  can  be  put. 
The  average  price  in  stack,  in  Northern  Colorado,  is  six  dollars  per  ton. 

An  enemy  of  alfalfa  that  is  troublesome  in  some  localities  is  the 
dodder  plant  (Cuscuta  trifolii.)  It  resembles  a  number  of  fleshy  threads 
twisted  around  a  branch,  and  when  fully  developed  is  a  true  parasite,  and 
feeds  upon  the  juices  of  the  alfalfa.  It  is  an  annual,  and  may  usually  be 


IOO  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

destroyed  by  frequent  cutting  of  the  crop  infested.  Sometimes,  however, 
if  thoroughly  established,  says  an  authority,  "  nothing  short  of  digging 
up  the  crop  infested  and  burning  the  whole  will  get  rid  of  it."  But  the 
best  plan  is  to  be  sure  that  the  seed  sown  is  free  from  this  pest.  Alfalfa 
seed  is  about  two  lines  long  and  one  and  one-fourth  wide  ;  while  dodder 
seeds  are  not  more  than  half  the  size ;  hence,  if  alfalfa  or  clover  seed  is  well 
sifted  before  sowing,  the  dodder  will  be  easily  separated.  Here  again  is 
another  forcible  illustration  of  the  importance  of  obtaining  clean,  pure 
seed  for  sowing. 


FORESTRY. 

So  thoroughly  am  I  impressed  with  the  importance  of  this  branch  ol 
horticulture  to  the  best  results  in  fruit  growing,  that  I  would  be  willing 
to  promise  a  revolution  in  this  industry  could  I  be  given  the  control  of 
the  forest  tree  planting  of  the  Nation  for  the  next  twenty  years,  and  the 
facilities  for  making  the  work  effective. 

I  would  place  a  shelter-belt  of  timber  on  every  farm  in  the  land,  and 
to  every  tenth  acre  cultivated,  at  most,  I  would  have  an  acre  of  perma- 
nent woods.  Furthermore,  the  most  ample  precautions  would  be  taken 
to  guard  against  disastrous  forest  fires,  and  to  preserve,  within  reasonable 
limits,  the  mountain  and  native  woodlands  from  denudation.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  our  Government  could  make  a  more  judicious  investment,  or  better 
promote  the  general  welfare,  than  by  annually  making  well-advised  ex- 
penditures in  the  direction  of  forest  tree  planting. 

The  "Timber  Culture  Act"  is  founded  in  a  wise  public  policy,  and, 
if  its  provisions  were  honestly  carried  out,  would  be  very  beneficial.  But 
so  much  neglect  and  bad  faith  are  shown  on  the  part  of  many  who  avail 
themselves  of  its  generous  terms,  that  the  real  aim  of  the  law  is  defeated  in 
a  large  majority  of  cases. 

It  can  only  be  made  to  accomplish  the  wholesome  objects  intended, 
by  the  strictest  supervision  on  the  part  of  those  in  authority.  "With  every 
reasonable  allowance  made  for  failures  from  unforseen  causes  or  adverse 
conditions,  like  lack  of  water  (and  these  should  only  operate  to  extend 
the  time  to  enable  a  substantial  compliance  with  the  law),  no  person 
should  be  permitted  to  obtain  a  title  under  this  act  who  has  not  acted,  in 
all  respects,  with  absolute  good  faith  in  planting  and  caring  for  his  "tim- 
ber claim."  If  this  rule  were  strictly  adhered  to,  deception  would  be  un- 
availing, and  there  would  be  less  heard  of  the  "  impossible  conditions  of 
the  law,"  or  the  hardships  of  enforcing  its  provisions  to  the  letter,  as  an 
excuse  for  making  a  farce  of  tree  planting.  Let  the  law  stand,  and,  if 
necessary,  add  tenfold  to  its  advantages,  as  ao  inducement  to  planters,  but 
see  that  the  work  is  done,  and  done  well.  Failure  is  often  the  result,  too, 
of  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  proper  methods  of  planting,  which  will  be 


IO2  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

noticed  later  on.  But  the  masses  manifestly  need  enlightening  with 
reference  to  the  influence  and  general  benefits  of  the  right  distribution  of 
wood  lands.  That  destructive  tendencies  of  many  kinds  would  be  arrested 
if  the  great  West  and  Northwest  could  be  given  the  protection  afforded  by 
extensive  forests,  there  seems  little  doubt.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  proper 
distribution  of  moisture,  the  modification  of  atmospheric  and  soil  tempera- 
ture, the  influence  towards  preventing  the  frightful  tornadoes,  the  pitiless 
blizzards  from  the  far  North,  and  the  parching  winds  that  sweep  our 
Western  plains,  the  annual  precipitation  of  moisture,  the  avoidance  of 
prolonged  drouths  and  of  disastrous  floods — all  these  and  similar  con- 
ditions would  be  most  favorably  affected.  The  modifying  influences  of 
large  bodies  of  timberland  upon  climate  are  too  well  known  to  need  dis- 
cussion. For  this  reason  fruit  growing  is  always  more  certain,  other 
things  being  equal,  contiguous  to  extensive  woods,  or  where  sheltered  by 
trees.  As  a  protection  from  the  disastrous  effects  of  severe  winds,  they 
are  most  valuable  to  the  orchard  and  garden. 

Fifteen  years  ago  the  author  of  "Man  and  Nature"  was  of  the 
opinion  that  not  one  of  our  States  had,  within  its  borders,  with  the  excep. 
tion  of  Oregon,  more  timber  land  than  it  ought  permanently  to  preserve, 
(meaning  of  course  the  relative  proportion  to  the  landed  area.)  Since 
then  the  decrease  has  been  considerable,  as  the  annual  consumption  in  the 
arts  alone  amounts  to  over  20,000,000,000  cubic  feet, 

While  the  entire  forest  area  of  the  United  States  is  not  far  from 
500,000,000  acres,  (which  seems  a  large  amount,)  yet  our  economists  agree 
that  we  have  reached  the  lowest  profitable  limit  of  forest  area.  Basing 
the  calculation  upon  the  known  rates  of  forest  increase  in  European  coun- 
tries, it  is  estimated  that  to  supply  the  yearly  demand  mentioned,  the 
yield  or  increase  of  some  400,000,000  acres  must  be  employed.  Add  to 
this  the  enormous  destruction  from  forest  fires,  domestic  uses,  etc.,  and  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  conclusion  reached  from  the  standpoint  of  National 
economies  is  a  reasonable  and  logical  one.  But,  however  indisputable  the 
position  taken  may  be  in  favor  of  conserving  and  adding  to  the  forest 
area,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  correct  solution  of  the  problem  will  be  reached 
until  the  people  can  be  made  to  realize  that  there  is  money  in  the  tree  as 
an  investment.  This  it  ought  not  to  be  difficult  to  show.  Let  any  person 
select  even  one  acre  of  good  strong  soil,  the  same  as  he  would  expect  to 
grow  any  profitable  crop  on,  and  let  him  plant  say  5,000  small  trees  ol 
several  good  varieties— white  ash,  wild  black  cherry,  black  walnut,  linden, 


FORESTRY.  1 03 

maples,  for  example,  or  take  five  acres  of  any  desirable  kinds  adapted  to 
his  section  of  country.  Let  these  be  cultivated  and  watered  say  four  or 
five  times  a  year.  They  may  be  pruned  in  the  winter  time  when  little  or 
nothing  else  can  be  done.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year  from  planting* 
one-half  of  these,  or  a  third,  might  be  easily  sold  for  shade  or  other  pur- 
pose, if  they  were  nice  and  smooth  trees,  at  a  handsome  advance  over 
the  original  cost  and  the  expense  of  cultivation.  Each  year  thereafter 
more  than  enough  can  be  easily  taken,  by  way  of  thinning  out,  to  pay  all 
expenses.  Now  at  the  end  of  eight  or  ten  years  there  should  be  any- 
where from  a  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  nice,  thrifty  trees  to  the  acre, 
and  these  should  be  on  an  average  at  least  five  inches  in  diameter,  and 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  high.  Here  we  have  then  on  five  acres, 
say  six  thousand  trees  after  making  due  allowance  for  losses  from  any 
cause.  Trees  of  this  age  of  any  good  hard  wood  variety  are  worth  for 
mechanical  purposes,  at  least  fifty  cents  each,  and  those  suitable  for  trans- 
planting (any  good  street  tree)  even  at  half  the  size,  has  always  sold 
readily  at  that  price  ;  and  to-day  fifty  thousand  nice  street  trees — like  the 
elm,  box  elder  and  soft  maple— from  two  to  four  inches  in  diameter  would 
find  quick  sale  at  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  cents  each  at  -wholesale,  (many 
people  in  the  West  will  plant  nothing  but  a  large  tree,)  in  Colorado  and 
Wyoming.  The  demand  in  all  this  region  for  years  to  come  will  be 
extensive,  and  any  person  who  has  a  well-grown  street  tree  even,  need  not 
have  difficulty  in  finding  a  purchaser. 

For  mechanical  purposes  trees  like  the  ash,  cherry  and  black  walnut 
are  always  in  demand  wherever  they  can  be  got  to  market.  But  to  return 
to  figures :  We  have  six  thousand  trees  ten  years  of  age  worth  at  least 
fifty  cents  each,  or  $3,000,  (and  this  figure  would  be  low,  even  on  an 
Eastern  basis  for  some  of  the  varieties,)  giving  a  profit  of  sixty  dollars 
per  acre  for  the  entire  time.  If  nut-bearing  trees  were  set,  and  they  do 
exceedingly  well  in  portions  of  Colorado,  they  should  be  of  producing 
size  by  the  end  of  ten  years.  The  estimate  on  trees  so  valuable  for  the 
arts  as  some  we  have  named,  we  believe  much  too  low.  These  figures  are 
made  with  some  knowledge  of  results,  and  are  in  no  sense  exagger- 
ated. The  serious  drawback  to  tree  culture  is  that  people  are  often 
unwilling  to  give  trees  good  soil  or  even  fair  treatment.  They  are  too 
apt  to  be  stuck  in  the  ground  and  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  This 
never  pays. 


IO4  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

IRRIGATION. 

In  this  dry  climate,  without  the  ground  is  in  exceptionally  good  con- 
dition, always  follow  tree  planting  by  an  immediate  irrigation.  Cultivate 
several  times  during  the  season.  Keep  down  the  weeds  and  water  often 
enough  to  keep  the  young  trees  in  active  growth.  If  seedlings  are  given 
the  right  kind  of  care  for  the  first  two  seasons  they  will  be  well  on  the 
way  to  a  fine,  permanent  growth.  If  neglected  at  this  period  they  may 
either  perish  or  receive  a  check  from  which  they  will  never  fully  recover, 

It  is  usual  in  Colorado  to  plant  in  rows  four  feet  apart,  with  the  trees 
from  one  and  one-half  to  two  feet  in  the  row — set  with  a  view  to  thinning 
out.  In  this  case  cultivation  can  only  be  done  one  way.  If  it  is  practic- 
able to  do  so,  give  a  good  irrigation  once  a  week  during  the  first  season. 

Never  set  young  trees  on  ridges  on  the  plains.  They  should  be 
planted  in  a  furrow  like,  so  that  they  may  better  retain  the  moisture  from 
the  clouds.  This  is  particularly  necessary  where  water  is  scarce  for  irri- 
gation. To  those  in  the  "rain  belt"  district  who  are  attempting  to  grow 
trees,  the  importance  of  deep  plowing  and  setting  in  trenches  or  furrows 
where  the  soil  has  been  mellowed  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  of  early 
spring  planting,  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  After  the  trees  have  been 
set,  throw  around  them  a  heavy  mulch  or  protection  of  fine  straw,  chaff, 
wild  hay,  or  any  coarse  litter,  and  it  will  serve  to  protect  the  young  trees 
and  retain  the  moisture  that  falls  on  them.  In  transplanting,  we  say  it 
again,  for  the  hundreth  time,  never  allow  the  roots  of  trees  to  lay  exposed 
to  the  hot  sun  or  drying  winds. 

PLANTING   SEEDLINGS. 

An  expeditious  way  of  setting  forest  tree  seedlings  is  to  run  furrows 
one  way  with  the  plow,  after  the  manner  described  in  orchard  planting 
(the  ground  having  been  previously  deeply  broken  and  well  prepared), 
then  let  the  young  trees  be  placed  in  an  upright  position  in  the  furrow 
the  entire  length,  after  which  the  soil  can  be  thrown  back  with  the  plow. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  go  .over  the  ground  and  straighten  up  the  seedlings 
(uncovering  any  that  have  been  completely  covered),  and  to  press  the 
earth  firmly  against  the  roots  with  the  foot  while  passing  along.  If  care 
is  used,  the  young  trees  may  be  fairly  well  planted  in  this  way,  and  from 
three  to  four  may  work  to  advantage  in  carrying,  dropping,  and  complet- 
ing the  work  as  the  plow  is  run.  But  good  planting  is  more  likely  to  be 


FORESTRY.  1 05 

done  by  the  use  of  the  shovel  or  spade,  and  it  can  be  accomplished  quite 
rapidly  if  pToperly  managed.  An  excellent  method  is  adopted  by  Mr. 
Robert  Douglas,  probably  the  most  extensive  planter  of  forest  trees  in  the 
country.  Mr.  Douglas  describes  it  as  follows : 

"  Before  the  planting  is  commenced,  the  harrow  and  roller  are  run 
over  the  land,  and  after  that  the  marker,  marking  off  the  ground  four  feet 
each  way,  the  same  as  for  corn.  The  workmen  are  then  divided  off  into 
companies  of  three  each,  or  two  men  and  one  boy,  the  two  men  with 
spades,  and  the  boy  with  a  bundle  of  trees.  The  two  men  with  spades 
plant  on  adjoining  rows,  the  tree-holder  standing  between  them.  The 
planter  strikes  his  spade  vertically  into  the  ground  on  the  running  line 
close  up  to  the  cross  mark,  then  raises  a  spadeful  of  earth,  the  boy  inserts 
the  tree,  the  earth  is  replaced,  the  planter  places  his  foot  close  up  to  the 
stem  of  the  tree — bearing  on  his  full  weight — and  passes  on  to  the  next 
mark.  This  tightening  of  the  tree  is  the  most  essential  part  of  the  work. 
The  boy  is  kept  quite  busy  attending  two  planters.  After  ?  little  experi- 
ence the  boy  will  learn  to  bring  each  tree  out  of  his  bundle,  with  a  circu- 
lar upward  motion,  that  will  spread  out  the  roots  when  placed  in  the 
ground  about  as  evenly  as  they  could  be  placed  with  the  hand.  The 
three  persons  will  plant  at  least  4,500  trees  in  a  ten-hour  day. 

When  we  consider  that  by  this  method  the  trees  are  planted  in  a 
straight  line,  at  a  proper  depth,  the  roots  spread  out,  and  the  earth  firmly 
packed  over  them,  we  think  it  much  better  than  any  other  method.  Dr. 
Warder  named  this  the  "  Douglas  Three-Motion  system,"  as  three  motions 
of  the  spade  are  required  in  planting  each  tree. 

When  a  great  number  of  men  are  employed,  time  is  saved  by  having 
a  man  follow  in  the  rear,  handing  the  bundle  of  trees  to  the  tree-holders. 
We  found  that  one  man  could  attend  thirty  to  sixty  workmen.  He  would 
follow  with  a  wagon  load  of  trees  close  in  the  rear,  and  whenever  he  saw 
a  boy  on  his  last  dozen,  he  would  throw  him  a  bundle,  the  boy  would  put 
it  under  his  arm,  and  use  it  after  he  had  disposed  of  the  few  in  his  hand. 
We  use  a  two-horse  cultivator  among  the  trees  during  the  summer,  and 
the  cultivation  is  just  as  simple  as  for  corn.  Working  up  the  earth  to  and 
from  the  trees  alternately,  we  use  no  hoes,  as  careless  workmen  will  injure 
a  great  many  trees  with  this  instrument,  while  horses  will  rarely  injure  a 
tree,  and  they  can  be  worked  so  close  to  the  trees  that  a  weed  rarely  needs 
to  be  pulled  by  hand." 


IO6  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

The  instruction  given  for  the  planting  of  an  orchard,  and  for  the  cul- 
tivation and  irrigation  of  fruit  trees,  will  in  the  main  apply  to  forest  trees. 
In  the  end,  it  will  pay  to  prepare  the  ground  thoroughly  in  advance  of 
planting,  and  to  give  good  cultivation.  Eight  here  is  where  failures  are 
made  in  most  cases.  Never  make  the  mistake  of  setting  a  tender  young 
tree  on  sod,  nor  of  sowing  or  planting  seeds  in  such  a  place,  especially 
in  this  dry  soil  and  atmosphere.  It  is  time  and  money  worse  than  thrown 
away.  For  "timber  claims"  or  extensive  plantings,  a  good  one  or  two 
year  old  tree  is  the  best. 

SEED   SOWING. 

If  seed  is  to  be  used,  always  sow  or  plant  it  in  rich,  mellow  soil — 
if  anything,  inclined  to  be  sandy— and  have  it  (the  soil)  well  prepared. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  better  to  grow  plant  seeds  on  a  suitable  garden  spot, 
in  beds,  with  rows  nine  or  ten  inches  apart,  and  the  second  or  third 
season  transplant  to  where  desired.  Select  a  Northern  exposure  for  the 
seed  bed,  or  protect  with  screens  of  some  kind,  plant  early  and  do  not  let 
the  soil  bake.  Seeds  planted  in  the  fall  should  be  well  covered  with  light 
mulch  to  keep  them  from  drying  out. 

Mr.  D.  S.  Grimes  writes  that  he  sows  thickly  in  rows  in  seed  bed  and 
shades  the  first  summer.  He  says  :  "  I  drive  down  stake^  nail  on  cross- 
pieces,  then  take  old,  refuse  gunny-sacks,  rip  them  open  and  tack  them  on 
to  the  cross-pieces.  This  covering  can  be  put  on  quickly  and  cheaply.  In 
the  fall  the  covering  should  be  removed,  to  enable  the  plants  to  sun- 
harden.  When  the  plants  first  appear,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  keep 
them  too  wet,  causing  them  to  '  damp  off.'  *  *  *  Seeds 

of  cone-bearing^  trees  require,  as  a  rule,  more  care  in  planting.  The 
yellow  pine  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  however,  (Pinus  Pondurosa,)  is  an 
exception,  and  its  seed  will  grow  readily  as  wheat  and  more  rapidly  than 
any  other  evergreen.  They  will  make  an  average  growth  from  the  seed 
of  two  feet  each  year.  I  am  sorry  to  see  so  few  evergreens  planted  by  our 
farmers." 

The  depth  of  sowing  seeds  depends  upon  the  variety.  The  rule  is, 
the  smaller  the  seed  the  less  they  should  be  covered.  In  this  dry  climate 
probably  one  inch  would  be  about  right  for  seeds  like  ash,  maple,  elm, 
etc.*  Nut-bearing  seeds  are  planted  deeper. 


*NOTE— Even  deeper  planting  than  this  might  be  required  in  some  instances. 


'  FORESTRY.  IO/ 

The  time  for  sowing  seeds  varies  with  different  varieties.  The  soft 
maples,  (white  and  scarlet,)  cottonwood,  linden  and  elm  ripen  in  early  or 
late  summer,  and  should  be  sown  soon  after.  The  fruit  of  most  nut-bear- 
ing trees,  and  of  the  plum,  apple,  pear  and  peach,  should  in  this  climate, 
either  be  sown  in  the  fall  or  kept  in  moist  earth,  where  they  will  be 
subject  to  the  action  of  the  frost  in  order  to  secure  germination  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Catalpa,  birch,  ailanthus  and  some  other  seeds  are 
generally  kept  dry  in  winter  and  sown  in  spring.  Hard-shelled  seed,  like 
the  locust  and  coffee  bean,  must  be  soaked  in  hot  water  (some  say  scalded) 
before  planting,  and  kept  warm  until  they  show  signs  of  germinating,  when 
they  should  be  at  once  planted  and  not  allowed  to  dry  out.  Evergreen 
seeds  may  be  sown  in  spring,  but  require  careful  treatment  in  seed  bed 
for  success.  Most  of  them  retain  their  vitality  longer  than  deciduous 
seeds.  Some  of  them,  like  varieties  of  the  pines,  have,  under  favorable 
conditions,  been  known  to  keep  for  twenty  years  or  more.  The  silver  firs 
on  the  contrary  should  be  planted  not  later  than  the  first  season.  The 
beds  in  which  most  evergreen  seeds  are  sown  should  be  protected  by  lath 
or  other  suitable  screens  and  well  sheltered  from  the  hot  sun  and  drying 
winds.  "The  first  few  months,  until  the  formation  of  the  terminal  bud  is 
the  most  critical  time."  A  close,  confined  atmosphere  with  too  much 
water,  will  be  quickly  fatal  to  them.  In  addition  to  the  screens  overhead, 
mulching  the  yOung  seedlings  in  winter  with  leaves  or  pine  needles  is 
recommended.  They  may  be  transplanted  after  two  years  and  some  of 
the  pines  at  one  year.  With  these,  as  with  all  seedlings,  weeds  should  be 
kept  out  of  the  beds. 

TRANSPLANTING    EVERGREF^S. 

Colorado  evergreens  are  famous  for  beauty  and  hardiness,  and  among 
them  the  blue  spruce,  (Picea  Pungens,)  is  the  peer  of  any  in  the  known 
world.  The  Engleman  spruce,  (Abies  JEnglemanii,}  the  Douglas,  (A' 
Douylasii,)  the  great  silver  fir,  (A.  Grandis,)  and  the  white  spruce,  (Picea 
Alba,)  are  all  magnificent  trees.  In  transplanting  these  evergreens  care 
should  be  taken  never  to  expose  the  roots  to  the  sun  or  air.  If  possible, 
always  let  the  dirt  or  soil  adhere  to  the  roots  when  taking  up,  and  sack  at 
once,  with  burlap  or  gunny-sack  tied  firmly  around.  Give  constant 
moisture  until  well  established.  Where  many  young  trees  are  to  be 
taken  up,  and  it  is  not  practicable  to  have  earth  around  them,  dipping,  or 
puddling  the  roots  in  a  kind  of  a  mud  batter  is  sometimes  practiced. 


IO8  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

The  larch  or  tamarack  (Larix  Americana,)  is  succeeding  well  on  low, 
moist  soil,  or  under  irrigation.  The  European  species,  which  is  a  more 
valuable  tree,  promises  to  be  successful  and  to  grow  quite  rapidly  when 
established.  Evergreens  may  be  propagated  from  cuttings,  but  to  grow 
this  way  requires  considerable  skill  and  good  facilities  for  controlling  heat 
and  moisture. 

CUTTINGS. 

All  species  and  varieties  of  the  poplar,  to  which  family  our  cotton- 
wood,  (Populus  Monilifera,)  shaking  aspen,  (P.  Tremuloides,)  and  balm  of 
Gilead  (P.  Condicans,)  belong,  grow  rapidly  from  cuttings  if  kept  in 
moist  soil.  This  is  true  of  willows  and  some  other  trees. 

THE  CUT  LEAVED  WEEPING  BIRCH. 

Among  deciduous  ornamental  trees  of  great  merit  for  Colorado, 
special  attention  is  called  to  the  cut-leaved  weeping  birch.  It  is  a  mag- 
nificent lawn  tree  and  absolutely  hardy  in  the  extreme  Northern  part  o 
the  State. 


STOCK  FOR  GENERAL  PLANTING. 

The  following  list  of  stock  for  general  planting  in  the  West  will  serve 
as  a  guide  to  those  who  may  wish  information  in  regard  to  varieties  most 
likely  to  succeed  over  widely  distributed  portions  of  the  country,  and 
under  different  local  conditions.  The  list  might  be  enlarged  somewhat, 
but  the  names  given  are  mostly  well  known,  and  recognized  everywhere 
as  valuable  and  extremely  hardy.  One  of  the  most  desirable  qualities 
that  any  tree  can  possess,  for  an  exacting  climate,  is  that  of  making  a 
definite  annual  growth^and  of  thoroughly  maturing  this  growth  each  sea- 
son. 

In  this  connection  we  emphasize  two  or  three  points.  It  is  better  to 
plant  but  few  varieties,  except  for  experimental  purposes.  Among  fruits, 
the  profitable  kinds  are  confined  to  about  three  of  the  leading  sorts  in  the 
respective  classes.  Others  are  more  or  less  doubtful  for  commercial  pur- 
poses. The  same  is  substantially  true  of  forest  trees.  Plant  them  with 
a  view  to  a  proper  succession  in  season,  and  set  nothing  more  than  can  at 
least  be  given  fair  treatment. 

Our  list,  of  course,  may  be  added  to  or  departed  from,  according  to 
local  surroundings  or  the  needs  of  any  particular  locality. 

The  usual  time  for  planting  in  the  spring  is  during  the  month  of 
April,  and  in  the  fall  from  the  1st  of  September  to  the  middle  of  October. 
As  to  the  distance  from  each  other  that  trees  should  be  planted,  so  much 
depends  upon  the  habits  of  different  trees,  that  no  very  definite  rule  can 
be  given.  Those  that  make  an  upright,  compact  growth  may  be  planted 
nearer  together  than  others  whose  habits  are  spreading  and  vigDrous. 

See  table  of  distarces  on  page  63. 

One  word  of  explanation  is  proper  in  this  connection.  Our  list  for 
general  planting  embraces  some  well-known  varieties  like,  for  example, 
the  Ben  Davis  apple,  which  succeeds  over  a  wide  region  of  the  West,  and 
which  is  found,  in  many  States,  to  be  the  most  profitable  winter  apple 
that  has  been  planted.  While  it  is  among  the  hardiest  of  the  old  sorts,  it 
could  not  be  relied  on  to  stand  the  test  winters  of  such  a  climate  as  North- 


HO  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATON. 

ern  Iowa,  Dakota  or  Minnesota.     For  such  localities,  nothing  less  hardy 
han  the  Oldenburg  should  be  planted. 

VARIETIES    FROM    WHICH  TO  SELECT  FOR   GENERAL    PLANTING. 

APPLES. 

Summer — Oldenburg,  Red  June,  Tetofsky,  Yellow  Transparent,  Red 
Astrachan. 

Fall — Wealthy,  Fameuse,  Gideon,  Haas,  September. 

Winter — Ben  Davis,  Walbridge,  Talman  Sweeting,  Scott's  Winter, 
McMahon,  Wolf-River,  Pewaukee. 

NEW  VARIETIES  OF  SPECIAL  MERIT. 

Thaler  (Russian),  Excelsior  (Minnesota),  Switzer,  Longfield,  Anto- 
novka,  Hibernial  (Russian),  Lou,  Sweet  Pear,  Isham  Sweet. 

CRABS  AND  HYBRIDS. 

Florence,  Martha,  Whitney,  Shields,  Brier  Sweet,  Sweet  Russett  and 
Hyslop. 

PEARS. 

Flemish  Beauty,  Clapp's  Favorite,  Bartlett.  These  are  probably 
planted  over  a  wider  section  of  country  than  any  other  pears,  but  the 
future  of  pear  growing  in  the  extreme  Northern  portion  of  Colorado  is 
yet  to  be  determined.  Some  of  the  Russian  varieties  are  being  tested. 
Perhaps  the  most  promising  of  these  are  the  Bessemianka  and  Gakovaska. 

PLUMS. 

For  geneial  planting  in  the  West,  any  one  of  the  following  will  be 
found  to  succeed  over  a  wide  range  of  country :  De  Soto,  Weaver,  Forest 
Garden,  Forest  Rose,  Quaker,  Miner  and  several  others  of  the  same  type. 
In  favored  localities  some  of  the  more  delicate  varieties  of  the  East  do 
well. 

CHERRIES. 

Rocky  Mountain  Dwarf  or  Low  Bush,  Utah  Red,  Early  and  Late 
Richmond,  English  Morello,  and  Large  Montmorency. 

The  new  and  especially  hardy  varieties  are  Ostheim,  Valdimir  and 
Wragg. 


STOCK    FOR    GENERAL    PLANTING.  I  1  I 

PEACHES. 

(For  peach  growing  sections.)  Alexander,  Early  and  Late  Crawford, 
Wheatland  and  Large  Early  York. 

For  severe  climates  try  the  Chinese  varieties,  Peen-To  and  Tong  Pa, 
and  some  of  the  Russian  "  Iron  Clads." 

APRICOTS. 

Breda,  Morepark  and  Early  Golden,  for  Southern  and  Western 
Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  etc.  For  Northern  Colorado,  Western 
portions  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  Wyoming,  etc.,  plant  the  Eussian 
varieties,  and  especially  named  sorts  like  Alexander,  Budd,  Gibb,  etc. 

MULBERRIES. 

New  American,  Black  and  Downing.  These  are  all  quite  hardy,  but 
will  not  stand  the  same  extremes  of  temperature  that  the  Russian  red  and 
white  fruited  varieties  do. 

QUINCE. 

Orange  ;ind  Champion.  (Not  reliable  in  regions  subjected  to  severe 
cold.) 

GRAPES. 

White — Lady,  Niagara,  Martha,  Empire  State.  Red — Delaware, 
Brighton,  Salem.  Black — Concord,  Worden,  Moore's  Early. 

RASPBERRIES. 

Red— Cuthbert,  Marlboro,  Turner  and  Clark.  Black— Tyler,  Gregg, 
Ohio  and  Mammoth  Cluster.  Earhart,  (new  everbearing,)  for  trial. 
Yellow — Caroline,  Brinkles'  Orange  and  Golden  Queen.  Purple — 
Schaeffer's  Colossal.  (Should  have  winter  protection  nearly  everywhere 
in  the  West.) 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Cumberland,  Crescent,  Jucunda  (for  heavy  soil,)  Capt.  Jack,  Man- 
chester, Wilson.  New  and  most  promising — Jessie  and  Bubach. 

BLACKBERRIES. 
Ancient  Briton,  Kittatinny,  Snyder,  Wilson. 

DEWBERRIES. 

(For  trial.)  The  Lucretia  and  one  or  two  Western  varieties  of  recent 
introduction. 


112  -\  ^HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

CURRANTS. 

Red  Dutch,  Cherry'tMctoria,  Fay's,  White  Grape,  White  Dutch, 
Black  Naples,  Lee's  Prolific,  (black,) 

GOOSEBERRIES. 

Downing,  Houghton,  of  American  varieties,  and  White  Smith, 
Crown  Bob,  and  Green  Globe  of  English  varieties.  Industry,  for  trial. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Juneberry,  Berberry,  (red  fruited,)  both  very  hardy  and  ornamental. 
For  trial  in  special  localities,  any  of  the  leading  huckleberries  and 
cranberries. 

FOREST   TREES,    ETC. 

For  timber— White  Ash,  Wild  Black  Cherry,  Black  Walnut,  Black 
Locust,  Catalpa  (Speciosa,}  Butternut.  White  and  Red  Oak  for  trial.  Test 
also  the  Hard  Maple.  It  may  succeed  in  portions  of  Colorado. 

For  street  trees — Cottonwood  (as  a  pioneer  tree  on  the  plains.)  Box 
elder,  Soft  Maple,  White  Elm,  Linden,  White  Ash,  Black  Locust  and 
Balm  of  Gilead.  For  trial,  Norway  Maple,  Carolina  Poplar  and  Shaking 
Poplar. 

For  timber  claims — Cottonwood  and  some  other  trees  of  the  Poplar 
family,  as  a  temporary  growth.  Box  Elder,  White  Ash,  Black  and 
Honey  Locust,  Black  Walnut,  Butternut,  Wild  Black  Cherry,  and  for 
special  sections,  Hardy  Catalpa  and  Russian  Mulberry. 

For  lawn  planting — Cut-Leaved  Weeping  Birch,  Mountain  Ash, 
Green  Ash,  Hardy  Catalpa,  Linden.  For  trial,  Poplar  Bolleana,  Weirs' 
Cut-Leaved  Silver  Maple  and  Laurel  Leaf  Willow. 

Among  Evergreens — Plant  the  native  Spruces  and  Cedars,  particu- 
larly those  of  bluish  or  steel  green  foliage.  The  Colorado  Blue  Spruce 
(Picea  Pungens)  is  an  Evergreen  of  incomparable  beauty,  and  very  hardy. 
The  Cedars,  with  the  same  silver,  frost-like  colors,  are  also  very  beautiful 
and  graceful. 

For  wind-breaks — Honey  Locust,  Russian  Mulberry,  Gray  Willow, 
Lombardy  Poplar  and  Black  Locust. 


ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS  AND  SHRUBS. 


Hydrangea  Grandiflora. 

One  rule,  at  least,  will  apply  to  the  culture  of  all  flowering  plants 
and  ornamental  shrubs.  While  the  soil  need  not  be  highly  enriched,  it 
should  be  of  good  texture,  mellow  and  easily  worked.  For  the  list  of 
plants  given  below,  any  average  soil  will  do,  but  let  it  be  thoroughly  pre- 
pared by  deep  spading,  plowing  or  trenching,  and  work  in  a  dressing  of 
8 


114  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

well-rotted  manure  or  compost.     Never  set  a  delicate  shrub  or  plant  in 
cold,  heavy,  unsubdued  land,  with  the  expectation  of  having  it  flourish. 

To  be  sure  many  of  the  list  given  will  survive  even  under  very  indif- 
ferent treatment,  but  the  abuse  of  anything  intended  to  delight  the  eye 
seems  so  incompatible  with  a  desire  to  be  surrounded  by  the  beautiful,  as 
to  almost  forbid  the  suggestion  of  possible  neglect. 

In  this  connection,  we  make  mention  of  the  fact  that  the  flora  of 
Colorado  contains  a  wealth  of  ornamental  plant  life  that  is  yet  scarely 
known,  but  which  is  destined  to  great  popularity.  Our  neighbor,  Mr. 
John  Leavy,  a  florist  of  nearly  twenty  years'  experience  in  Colorado,  favors 
us  with  a  select  list  of  herbaceous  plants,  and  of  hardy  shrubs  and  climb- 
ers, recommended  by  him  for  general  culture  in  Colorado.  He  could  ex- 
tend the  list  considerably,  but  gives  those  that  are  among  the  most  desir- 
able. 

HERBACEOUS    PLANTS. 

Aquilegia  Cerulea — native,  likes  moist  ground. 

Delphinium  Chinensis. 

Perennial  Phlox. 

Herbaceous  Paeony. 

Lychnis  Fulgens. 

Lathyrus  Latifolia  (Perennial  Pea.) 

Dicentra  Spectabilis  (Bleeding  Heart). 

Anemone  Japonica. 

Lily  of  the  Valley — moist  shade. 

SHRUBS  THAT  ARE  HARDY  AND  DO  WELL  HERE. 

Syringa  Grandiflora. 

Deutzia  Scabra. 

Spirea  Eeevesii. 

Spirea  von  Houtii. 

Spirea  Collusa  Rosea. 

Spirea  Collusa  Alba. 

Spirea  Prunifolia. 

Spirea  Douglasii. 

Hydrangea  Paniculata  Grandiflora. 

Viburnum  Sterilis  (Snow-Ball). 

Berberry — common. 

Berberry — purple  leaved. 


ORNAMENTAL    PLANTS    AND    SHRUBS.  I  1 5 

CLIMBERS. 

The  three  best  vines  for  arbors  and  verandahs — Ampelopsis  Quinque- 
folia,  Clematis  Ligistrum,  Clematis  Douglasii.  All  native,  and  perfectly 
hardy. 

DESIRABLE    PLANTS    FOR    PARLOR    AND    GARDEN. 

(Colorado  Agricultural  College  Report — Horticultural  Department.; 

"  Nearly  all  varieties  of  ornamental  plants  succeed  admirably  out- 
doors. Indoors,  in  winter,  they  exhibit  a  luxuriance  of  leaf  and  wealth  of 
blossom  quite  foreign  to  parlor  plants  at  a  lower  altitude.  Among  out- 
door plants,  the  Verbena  is  a  great  success,  especially  those  grown  from 
seed  of  approved  strain.  Geraniums  and  the  different  varieties  of  Coleus 
are  brighter  colored  here,  but  do  not  grow  so  luxuriantly.  Of  Roses,  all 
the  classes  succeed  better  here  than  at  the  East — our  bright  sun  and 
command  of  water  insuring  almost  a  continuous  succession  of  blossoms  in 
the  Hybrid  Perpetual  class,  so  that  the  name  here  is  not  so  much  a  mis- 
nomer as  in  the  olcer  States.  Heliotropes,  Carnations,  Petunias,  Lantanas 
and  most  of  the  varieties  of  Asclepias  are  admirable  for  summer  or  winter 
blooming. 

For  flowering  annuals,  nothing  gives  greater  satisfaction  than  the  new 
dwarf  strains  of  Petunia;  it  enjoys  bright  skies,  and  flowers  abundantly 
until  long  after  the  first  advent  of  frost.  Not  less  valuable  are  the  im- 
proved varieties  of  Phlox  Drummondi;  no  garden  can  afford  to  be  with- 
out them.  Pansies  are  beautiful  all  summer;  the  native  habitat  of  this 
plant  is  that  of  an  open  exposure,  although  the  reverse  of  this  is  thought 
to  be  the  case. 

A  word  in  closing  for  the  Dahlia  and  Gladiolus.  Nowhere  else  have 
I  seen  such  a  regal  display  of  these  deservedly  popular  flowers  as  in  this 
State." 

HARDY    SHRUBS. 

The  following  shrubs  are  in  every  way  admirable  for  Colorado : 

COMMON  NAME.  SCIENTIFIC  NAME. 

Sweet  Shrub , Calycanthus  floridus 

Button  Bush , Cephalanthus  occidentalis 

Sweet  Pepper  Bush Clethra  almfolia 

Bladder  Senna Colutea  arborescens 

Golden  Bell Forsythia  viridissima 

White  Althea Hibiscus  syriacus 

Hydrangea Hydrangea  paniculata  grandiflora 

Snowberry— red Symphoriocarpus  vulgaris 


I  1 6  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

Snowball Viburnum  opulus 

Spirea Spiraea  billiard!,  and  other  varieties 

Lilac— purple  and  white v..Syringa  vulgaris 

Privert Ligistrum  amurense 

Honeysuckle Lonicera  grandiflora 

Mock  Orange Philadelphus  coronarius 

Currant Ribes  floridum 

Weigelia Weigelia  rosea 

ROSES. 

Roses  are  justly  classed  as  the  most  beautiful  of  flowers.  To  paint  them 
as  nature  does  has  ever  been  a  chief  ambition  of  the  artist.  Still  the  per- 
petual question  is,  "  who  can  paint  the  rose?  "  Yet  these  peerless  bloom- 
ers are  among  the  easiest  to  raise  in  perfection.  They  require  a  fine,  rich 
soil  and  a  heavy  mulching  of  coarse  litter  or  leaves  in  fall.  Also 
considerable  water  in  our  climate,  and  good  cultivation.  Old  and  decayed 
branches  and  at  least  half  of  the  previous  season's  growth  should  be  cut 
away  in  the  spring.  Probably  all  roses,  even  the  hardiest,  do  better  with 
winter  protection.  It  increases  their  vigor  and  makes  them  more  produc- 
tive of  fine  flowers.  Earth  is  doubtless  the  safest  and  best  covering  for 
the  hardier  kinds.  The  ever-bloomers  are  tender  and  difficult  to  keep 
with  us,  without  one  has  facilities  for  keeping  them.  As  a  rule,  if  these 
are  desired,  it  is  better  to  plant  them  each  spring,  and  they  will  bloom 
about  July.  The  Hybrids  are  much  more  satisfactory  and  quite  hardy, 
but  will  kill  to  the  roots  if  not  protected.  They  are  said,  however,  to 
make  a  new  growth  when  killed  down  and  to  blossom  the  same  season. 
We  give  a  few  of  the  many  excellent  varieties: 

HYBRID  PERPETUALS. 

Alfred  Colomb,  Anna  de  Diesbach  or  Glorie  de  Paris,  Baroness 
Rothschild,  Paul  Neron,  General  Jacqueminot,  John  Hopper,  La  France, 
Mad.  Plantier,  Magna  Charta,  Prince  Canaille  de  Rohan,  General  Wash- 
ington. 

Moss  ROSES. 

Countess  de  Murianais,  Glory  of  Mosses,  Luxembourg,  Henry 
Martin,  Princess  Adelaide. 

JUNE  ROSES. 
Cabbage  or  Hundred-Leaf,  Persian  Yellow,  White,  Sweet  Briar. 

HARDY  CLIMBING  ROSES. 
Baltimore  Belle,  Seven  Sisters,  Queen  of  the  Prairie. 


LAWN  MAKING, 

A  beautiful  lawn  is  always  one  of  the  most  attractive  features  of 
home  surroundings.  It  can  be  easily  made,  and  with  the  right  manage- 
ment a  good  stand  of  grass  can  be  secured  in  a  few  weeks. 

Where  surface  irrigation  by  flooding  is  to  be  practiced,  the  ground 
should  be  carefully  graded  so  that  water  will  run  readily  to  all  parts  and 
be  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface.  It  is  often  necessary  to  take  off 
considerable  of  the  top  soil  in  grading,  and  it  is  better  to  have  the  exca- 
vation deep  enough  in  the  first  instance  to  permit  of  easy  irrigation  for 
many  years,  thus  making  allowance  for  the  natural  filling  up  of  the  lawn 
from  any  cause,  rather  than  be  compelled  to  re-make  the  lawn  in  two  or 
three  years  afterwards.  Of  course,  where  hose  is  used  for  watering,  this 
precaution  is  not  so  important.  After  the  necessary  grading  has  been 
done,  and  the  ground  nicely  leveled,  turn  on  the  water,  not  only  to  see 
that  it  will  flow  easily,  but  to  settle  the  earth,  so  that  any  defect  may  be 
discovered,  and  remedied,  in  the  grading.  When  sufficiently  dried  out  to 
work,  spread  on  a  liberal  quantity  of  well-rotted,  fine  manure,  and  spade 
in  thoroughly. 

If  a  large  plat  is  to  be  sown,  a  plow  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
shovel  or  spade.  After  this  is  done,  rake  or  harrow  the  ground  smoothly 
and  sow  the  seed.  "Fancy  mixed  lawn  grass"  may  be  used,  or  nice  clean 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  with  white  .clover. 

The  quantity  of  each  required  varies  somewhat  according  to  the  soil. 
But  it  should  be  thickly  sown  in  all  cases  for  best  results.  After  sowing 
it  may  be  necessary  to  run  lawn  roller  over  the  ground. 

The  proportion  of  seed  used  where  a  mixture  is  desired  varies  from 
three  to  five  parts  of  blue  grass  to  one  of  clover.  Sometimes  equal  parts 
are  sown.  A  pound  of  mixed  seed  will  usually  be  ample  for  three  hun- 
dred square  feet  of  ground,  and  it  is  estimated  that  about  five  bushels 
would  be  required  for  an  acre. 

White  clover  makes  a  quick  growth,  and  a  very  pretty  temporary 
lawn. 


Il8  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

The  blue  grass  will  take  complete  possession  of  the  ground  after  it  is 
thoroughly  established,  and  with  proper  attention  will  last  a  long  time. 
Cut  after  growth  is  a  few  inches  high,  and  afterwards  trim  and  water 
twice  a  week.  Never  let  the  ground  bake,  if  possible  to  avoid  it,  when 
the  grass  is  just  coming  up.  At  this  time  constant  moisture  is  needed. 
It  is  better  to  mow  often,  and  let  the  clippings  remain  on  the  lawn 
instead  of  raking  them  off.  In  this  way  they  act  as  a  fertilizer.  The  last 
cutting  of  the  season  may  be  permitted  to  grow  sufficiently  rank  so  that 
it  will  cover  the  lawn  well,  and  thus  avoid  the  necessity  of  covering  with 
coarse  manure,  which  is  unsightly  and  often  offensive. 


SUMMARY   OF   INSTRUCTIONS   ABOUT 
IRRIGATION.* 


Attention  is  called  to  the  importance  of  preparing  the  ground  before 
planting,  so  that  water  can  be  readily  run  where  desired.  The  land  need 
not  be  graded  to  a  water  level,  nor  so  that  it  can  be  entirely  flooded,  but 
should  be  prepared  so  that  water  will  run  easily.  Occasional  flooding  is 
rarely  desirable,  and  is  seldom  practicable  except  on  small  lots.  In  all  cases 
avoid  steep  grades,  where  the  soil  washes  badly,  for  the  planting  of  fruit 
stock.  A  gentle  slope,  all  things  considered,  is  best,  and  long  rows  are 
preferable  to  short  ones,  when  the  slope  is  sufficient  to  carry  the  water 
easily  the  entire  length.  If  the  irrigation  is  to  be  done  from  one  direc- 
tion or  from  one  side  of  the  land,  let  the  main  lateral  be  made  along  this 
side,  and  sub-laterals  be  constructed  down  through  the  rows  after  planting 
is  done.  These  are  usually  made  with  an  ordinary  shovel  plow,  and,  in 
small  gardens,  with  the  irrigating  shovel  and  line.  For  limited  tracts  or 
grounds,  a  neat  way  of  conducting  water  is  by  means  of  a  box  or  flurne,  in 
the  place  of  the  main  lateral,  with  checks  or  gates  (and  both  where  needed) 
at  the  head  of  and  opposite  each  sub-lateral,  so  that  water  can  be  readily 
turned  into  them  arid  off  when  desired  (see  illustration  on  page  71). 
This  plan  avoids  the  necessity  of  shoveling  out  and  filling  in  the  dirt 
every  time  the  rows  are  to  be  irrigated  ;  the  simple  raising  and  lowering 
of  each  gate  or  check  being  all  that  'is  required.  Where  the  land  slopes 
in  opposite  directions,  it  is  often  practicable  to  run  water  both  ways 
by  means  of  a  ditch  running  along  the  highest  point.  At  times  the  lay 
of  the  ground  requires  a  mixed  system,  one  of  sections  and  cross-sections 
in  irrigating.  In  all  such  cases,  the  irrigator  has  to  be  governed  by  cir- 
cumstances—in other  words,  to  do  the  best  he  can. 


*NOTE— The  suggestions  following,  although  applicable  more  or  less  to  any  sys- 
tem of  irrigation,  refer  more  especially  to  the  surJace  or  furrow  methods. 


I2O  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

HOW    AND    WHEN    TO    IRRIGATE. 

First  of  all,  care  should  be  exercised  to  so  arrange  or  lay  out  the  garden 
and  orchard,  that  those  things  which  require  the  least  water  will  receive 
the  least,  and  vice  versa.  In  other  words,  don't  mix  everything  up  so  in  plant- 
ing, that  your  trees  or  vegetables  will  have  to  be  irrigated  every  time  the 
small  fruits  are.  I  regard  this  an  important  precaution.  Plant  the  cherry 
trees,  for  example,  where  they  will  get  the  least  irrigation.  Next  to  them 
the  peach,  pears  and  apples,  although  the  latter  will  need  considerable  the 
first  season  after  planting.  Among  small  fruits,  the  blackberry  and  most 
varieties  of  grapes  will  get  along  with  comparatively  little  water,  while  the 
strawberry,  currant  and  gooseberry  should  be  watered  quite  freely.  The 
raspberry,  if  properly  mulched,  only  needs  an  occasional  irrigating,  ex- 
cept when  fruiting,  then  once  a  week  will  be  about  the  right  thing.  Nearly 
all  cuttings  require  plenty  of  moisture.  For  obvious  reasons,  no  precise 
rule  can  be  given  for  the  application  of  water.  So  much  depends  on  soil, 
location  and  the  manner  of  cultivation,  that  this  would  be  out  of  the 
question.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  well-established  orchard  would  not 
ordinarily  require  more  than  three  good  irrigatings  during  the  year.  Some 
would  do  with  less,  but  this  would  be  about  the  average.  The  small 
fruits,  during  the  fruiting  season,  I  would  water  at  least  once  a  week.  As 
to  the  manner  of  running  water,  I  prefer  a  head  of  water  just  sufficient  to 
send  a  moderate  stream  gradually  along  the  rows.  This  enables  the  mois- 
ture to  penetrate  the  soil  more  thoroughly  than  a  rapid  current  would  do. 
If  practicable,  water  should  be  run  on  both  sides  of  the  row,  without  the 
lateral  or  ditch  is  close  to  one  side.  This  is  especially  desirable  in  the 
case  of  forest  or  other  trees  on  land  that  receives  little  or  no  cultivation. 
On  my  grounds  water  is  usually  run  along  several  rows  at  the  same  time. 
Now  and  then  soil  is  found  that  will  of  admit  of  rapid  irrigation,  or,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  sending  the  water  along  with  a  rush.  But  this  is  the 
exception,  and  is  often  very  objectionable.  Of  course,  where  water  is 
scarce  and  one  is  limited  to  a  certain  time  in  its  use,  the  best  that  can  be 
done  is  to  use  it  as  circumstances  will  permit.  When  the  water  has  run 
its  course,  turn  it  off.  Don't  let  it  soak  and  soak,  and  flood  your  grounds 
and  those  of  your  neighbor,  and  the  streets  and  highways  and  byways. 

TO    RECAPITULATE. 

First  prepare  your  ground  for  irrigation.     Avoid  steep  grades  for  fruit 
stock.     Give  preference  to  a  gentle  slope.     Irrigate  gradually  with  a  mod- 


SUMMARY   OF    INSTRUCTIONS.  121 

erate  stream.  Plant  those  things  that  require  least  water  where  they  will 
get  the  least.  Be  careful  not  to  force  your  trees  into  a  growth  of  wood 
that  will  not  ripen  before  the  succeeding  winter.  Give  the  small  fruits 
plenty  of  water  while  maturing.  Water  the  young  orchard,  particularly 
the  apple  trees,  quite  freely  the  first  season  and  also  the  second.  As  a 
rule,  withdraw  the  water  in  August  from  the  orchard  to  let  the  season's 
growth  mature.  Don't  spoil  your  land  and  crops  by  continuous  soaking. 
Turn  off  the  water  (not  into  the  street)  back  into  the  ditch  when  you  are 
through  with  it.  Water  thoroughly  the  last  thing  before  the  ground 
freezes,  so  that  your  stock  will  go  into  winter  quarters  in  good  shape,  pre- 
pared to  resist  the  drying  out  process  so  fatal  to  trees  in  this  climate. 


THE  RAIN  BELT  EXTENSION. 

While  this  subject  is  somewhat  foreign  to  the  scope  of  this  work,  the 
author  ventures  to  record  his  belief  that  those  who  maintain  the  position 
that  the  "  rain  belt  "  is  gradually  extending  Westward,  are  making  out  a 
pretty  good  case.  Among  advocates  of  this  doctrine  are  many  of  the 
thinking,  practical  men  of  the  West.  In  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  such 
men  as  Professors  Snow,  Aughey  and  Wilber,  and  Ex-Governor  Furnas, 
and  a  score  or  more  of  others  in  contiguous  States,  are  showing  by  proof 
that  seems  well  nigh  conclusive,  a  marked  increase,  both  in  atmospheric 
humidity  and  precipitation,  within  the  past  thirty  years. 

The  thirty-eight  years'  record  of  the  military  post  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth  (covering  nineteen  years  preceding  and  the  same  period  following 
the  occupation  of  that  State — Kansas — by  white  settlers,)  shows  an 
increase  from  30.96  inches,  the  average  of  the  first  period,  to  36.21  inches, 
the  average  of  second,  making  an  average  increase  of  5.21  inches  per 
annum. 

The  thirty  years'  records  of  Fort  Keiley;  of  the  State  Agricultural 
College  of  twenty -four  years;  and  the  seventeen  years'  records  of  the 
State  University  at  Lawrence — all  in  the  same  State — show  an  increase, 
respectively,  of  3.05,  5.61  and  3.06  inches  per  annum.  "  Expressed  in  per 
cent."  says  Professor  Snow,  "  these  four  stations  show  an  increase  in  the 
last  half  of  the  period  compared,  as  follows  :  Fort  Leavenworth,  nearly 
twenty-five  per  cent.;  Fort  Keiley,  thirteen  per  cent.;  Manhattan,  twenty 
per  cent.;  and  Lawrence  over  nine  per  cent. 

These  tests  cover  periods  of  time  sufficiently  long  to  justify  logical 
conclusions,  and  can  hardly  be  attributed  to  mere  "accidental  variations." 
They  are  entitled  to  weight.  Says  Mr.  Hinton :  "  When  settlement 
began  on  the  line  mentioned  by  Professor  Snow,  and  West  thereof,  the 
annual  precipitation  did  not  exceed  fourteen  inches,  and,"  he  adds, 
"  Western  Nebraska  to  the  North  of  Kansas,  equally  s.'iows,  and  perhaps 
even  in  a  more  marked  way,  the  peculiar  Western  movement  of  the  rain- 
fall, to  which  attention  has  been  [called,  as  characteristic  of  the  plains 
division." 


THE   RAIN    BELT    EXTENSION.  123 

Professors  Aughey  and  Wilber,  of  the  University  of  Nebraska, 
declare  that  Western  Nebraska  and  Eastern  Wyoming  will  show  a  steady 
climatic  change. 

Professor  Wilber  says  he  has  talked  with  hundreds  of  fanners  upon 
the  frontier,  whose  uniform  testimony  was  to  the  effect  that  there  was  a 
gradual  development  of  the  resources  of  the  soil,  by  the  increase  of 
moisture  in  its  various  forms,  which  follows  upon  cultivation. 

More  recently,  Mr.  Harrington,  editor  of  the  American  Meteorological 
Journal,  in  quite  an  elaborate  discussion  of  this  question  concludes  that 
"  increased  rainfall  occurs  along  the  line  of  largest  immigration  to  the 
plains,  and  as  the  invasion  is  still  going  on  on  an  enormous  scale,  it  is 
hardly  safe  to  say  that  the  attendant  meteorological  change  will  not  con- 
tinue farther." 

Whether  or  not  these  deductions  will  antagonize  the  scientific 
hypothesis,  that  this  planet  of  ours  is  gradually  approaching  the  sup- 
posed rainless  condition  of  the  moon,  or  whether,  even  if  established 
beyond  a  question,  they  would  be  regarded  in  the  nature  of  "  local  oscil- 
lations " — that  are  only  apparent  exceptions  to  the  hypothesis — is  a 
matter  that  perhaps  does  not  immediately  concern  practical  people.  The 
question  is,  what  is  actually  bringing  about  this  increase  of  rainfall? 
Probably  the  two  main  causes  are,  first,  the  subjection  of  a  vast  territory 
to  rapid  and  continuous  cultivation,  by  constant  stirring  of  the  soil  and 
uprooting  the  native  grasses,  thus  overcoming  the  resistence  to  free  capil- 
lary action ;  and  second,  the  extensive  planting  of  timber  and  smaller 
growths,  both  of  which,  on  a  large  scale,  tend  to  increase  atmospheric,  as 
well  as  terrene  humidity,  and  consequent  precipitation.  Another  influ- 
ence that  may  have  a  bearing  on  results  is  the  increased  humidity  of 
Western  winds,  caused  by  evaporations  from  extended  irrigation  districts 
along  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  But  whatever  the  true  causes 
are,  results  will  be  of  deep  interest  to  all  the  country  likely  to  be  effected. 


BUDDING  AND   GRAFTING. 
SUGGESTIONS  FROM  MR.  V.  DEVINNY,  OF  DENVER. 

Budding  and  grafting,  in  my  experience,  have  been  satisfactory,  with 
the  exception  of  stone  fruits,  which  are  nearly  a  failure.  I  have,  how- 
ever, been  successful  in  root-grafting  the  peach  on  the  plum.  Owing  to 
the  dry  air  of  our  climate,  some  precautions  are  necessary  to  success  in 
budding.  One  is,  that  the  scion  from  which  buds  are  taken  should  be 
large,  not  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  to  the  end,  that  the 
bud,  when  removed,  will  be  broad  and  long,  a  condition  necessary  to  resist 
the  withering  effects  of  our  climate.  The  bandaging  should  also  com- 
pletely cover  the  wound ;  likewise  in  grafting,  the  wound  should  be  care- 
fully covered.  Another  precaution  to  which  I  direct  special  attention  is 
this,  that  in  either  budding  or  grafting  old  trees,  the  leading  or  main 
limbs  should  not  be  budded  or  grafted,  but  one  or  more  of  their  smaller, 
erect  branches  should  be  selected  for  the  purpose,  and  the  main  limb 
should  be  deadened  above  the  grafted  or  budded  limbs,  by  the  removal  of 
three  or  four  inches  in  length  of  bark  around  the  limb. 

This  strong,  deadened  limb  will  afford  a  good  support,  to  which  the 
new  scions  can  be  tied,  thus  preventing  the  disastrous  effects  of  our  hard 
winds.  As  the  union  of  the  graft  and  the  stock  is  neither  perfect  nor 
strong  till  the  stock  has  doubled  its  diameter,  it  is  therefore  easily  torn 
away  by  our  summer  winds.  For  the  want  of  this  hint,  I  lost  many  large, 
budded  limbs  last  summer. 

Regarding  the  irrigation  of  orchards.  I  recommend  the  first  summer 
after  planting  irrigation  every  two  weeks,  the  second  and  third  years  the 
same,  after  which  irrigation  once  per  month  will  do.  But  no  irrigation 
should  be  done  after  September  1st,  except  the  first  year  after  planting. 


EFFECTS  OF  COLD  ON  FRUIT  BUDS. 

FROM    DR.    HOSKINS,    OF    VERMONT. 

I  cannot  say  that  I  have  investigated  the  matter  you  ask  about,  but 
facts  have  forced  themselves  on  my  attention  in  connection  therewith, 
and  it  seems  very  singular  that  so  little  notice  has  been  taken  of  them, 
considering  that  it  is  so  well  known  that  peaches,  apricots  and  many  other 
fruits  suffer  from  the  effect  of  cold  upon  their  fruit  buds,  either  or  both 
before  and  after  their  opening.  I  can  only  attribute  the  little  notice  the 
subject  seems  to  have  received,  to  the  probability  that  these  effects  of  cold 
upon  the  fruit  buds  of  the  apple  have  not  been  marked  enough  in  Europe, 
or  in  provincial  fruit-growing  sections  of  America,  to  attract  the  attention 
of  pomological  writers.  But  here  in  the  cold  North  it  is  different.  We 
have  tested  here  in  Northeastern  Vermont  a  good  many  apples,  pears^ 
plums  and  cherries,  the  trees  of  which  belong  to  the  "almost  hardy" 
class,  and  sometimes  grow  to  a  large  size,  yet  never  bear  any  perfect  fruit, 
except  after  an  exceptionally  mild  winter.  I  have  been  surprised  to  see 
how  many  plums,  cherries  and  Tolman,  Astrachan  and  St.  Lawrence 
apples,  would  appear  on  our  market,  not  one  having  been  offered  for  so 
long  that  the  impression  had  been  that  the  trees  were  all  dead.  After  a 
very  severe  winter,  even  many  of  our  "iron-clads" — Russians,  Siberians 
and  hybrids — though  blooming  full,  will  bear  but  a  light  crop.  The  same 
result  follows  even  a  moderate  winter,  when  a  sharp  frost  comes  at  bloom- 
ing time.  I  noticed  last  spring  that  the  limbs,  even  of  Siberian  hybrids 
or  semi-crabs  ("improved  crabs"),  which  chanced  to  be  covered  with 
snow  where  it  has  drifted  deeply,  bore  a  full  crop,  although  the  fruit  on 
the  rest  of  the  tree  was  very  scattering  and  imperfect.  A  few  sorts, 
notably  Oldenburgh  and  Tetofsky,  seem  able  to  endure  our  very  hardest 
winters  and  give  a  full  crop.  I  notice,  too,  that  some  varieties,  not  quite 
hardy  in  the  wood,  are  hardy  in  their  fruit  buds,  so  that,  though  the  tree 
is  hurt,  it  will  bear  a  full  crop.  This,  however,  when  it  occurs,  is  almost 
invariably  followed  by  the  death  of  the  tree,  so  that  when  we  get  a  full 
crop  of  plums  or  cherries,  we  expect  to  find  the  trees  mostly  dead  the  next 


126  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

spring.  We  then  have  to  wait  for  young  trees  and  sprouts  to  come  for- 
ward, and  this,  too,  is  one  reason  for  the  long  intervals  between  crops 
from  this  class  of  trees. 

From  the  knowledge  of  these  facts,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  under- 
stand why  it  is  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  resisting  power  of  the 
bloom  of  trees  in  flower  at  the  same  time,  and  all  subjected  to  the  same 
degree  of  frost.  Yet — and  here  is  a  point  likely  to  be  overlooked,  and 
which  complicates  the  matter — trees  in  the  same  orchard,  all  in  the  same 
stage  of  forwardness  as  to  blooming,  may  not  be  subject  to  the  same  degree 
of  cold  at  the  same  time.  After  these  spring  frosts,  it  is  curious  to  note 
single  trees,  or  one  side  of  a  tree,  or  the  upper  or  the  lower  branches,  or 
even  a  single  branch,  having  a  full  crop,  while  elsewhere  there  is  but 
little  fruit.  I  am  sorry  not  to  be  able  to  give  you  more  exact  information, 
but  I  believe  that  all  I  really  know  about  the  matter  is  given  above. 

Yours  truly, 

T.  H.  HOSKINS. 

NEW  PORT,  VT.,  November,  1887. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 

Particular  attention  is  directed  to  the  correspondence  following,  from 
prominent  fruit  growers  and  horticulturists  residing  in  different  sections 
of  Colorado. 

Not  only  do  these  contain  many  valuable  suggestions  in  regard  to 
soil,  irrigation  and  culture,  and  adaptation  of  varieties,  but  they  also  rep- 
resent widely  different  localities  and  local  conditions,  and  are  therefore 
important  as  a  guide  to  residents  of  the  immediate  respective  divisions  of 
the  State,  as  well  as  to  planters  in  adjoining  States  or  Territories  simi- 
larly situated. 

To  furnish  this  general  information  has  been  the  aim,  rather  than  to 
deal  with  particular  localities.  Every  County  in  the  State  will  come 
under  some  one  of  the  grand  divisions  heard  from,  and  therefore,  wishing 
to  have  our  Look  of  general  application,  so  far  as  possible,  no  special 
mention  has  been  made  of  the  already  fine  progress  shown  by  such  Coun- 
ties as  Arapahoe,  Boulder,  Fremont,  Jefferson,  El  Paso,  Larimer,  Weld 
and  others,  nor  of  the  almost  certain  large  success  that  awaits  the  devel- 
opment of  sections  like  La  Plata  County  and  the  Montezuma  Valley. 

The  remark  is  here  made  that  native  fruits  that  flourish  in  any  given 
locality  are  often  an  important  indication  of  what  may  be  cultivated  with 
profit ;  although  this  should  not  be  construed  adversely  to  the  success  of 
other  fruits  and  products  not  so  found. 

FROM    MESSRS.    GODDING   AND   STEEL,    OF    ROCKY   FORD,   BENT 

COUNTY. 

There  are  only  two  or  three  who  have  had  orchard  fruit  trees  planted 
long  enough  to  bear,  but  with  the  best  results.  We  think  this  is  a  favorite 
section  for  both  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  in  the  future  we  will  raise 
largely  of  all  kinds. 

We  have  two  kinds  of  soil.  That  on  the  river  bottom  is  a  stiff 
adobe  that  is  very  hard  to  work  properly,  and  few  succeed  with  it,  but  it 
is  very  rich  and  durable,  and  a  man  that  understands  it  gets  splendid 
results.  On  the  upland  it  is  of  a  light-gray  color  and  is  mixed  with  con- 


128  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

siderable  sand.     In  this  soil  fruits  and  vegetables  grow  to  perfection.     It 
is  easily  broken  up  and  yields  a  fine  crop  the  first  season. 

Water-melons  yield  from  1,000  to  1,500  melons  per  acre,  and  all  small 
fruits  and  vegetables  do  equally  well. 

FROM    PRESIDENT    C.  S.  FAUROT,  OF  THE  NORTHERN  COLORADO 
HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETY,  BOULDER  COUNTY. 

I  am  very  glad  to  hear  that  you  are  writing  a  book  on  the  subject 
named  in  your  letter. 

I  am  trying  several  new  'varieties  of  blackberries,  but  none  have 
fruited  except  the  Ancient  Briton,  and  I  think  that  is  one  of  the  most 
prolific  bearers  I  ever  saw. 

In  regard  to  the  irrigation  of  fruits,  I  don't  know  that  I  can  add  any- 
thing new,  but  I  will  say  this :  I  would  recommend  a  heavy,  clay  soil  for 
strawberries  and  a  limited  use  of  water,  as  I  think  too  much  water  hns  a 
tendency  to  make  the  fruit  soft  and  insipid  in  taste.  Ground  that 
currants  are  grown  upon  should  be  kept  moist,  not  wet. 

Raspberries  and  blackberries  should  be  watered  once  a  week  through 
the  fruiting  season  ;  after  the  fruit  is  gone,  give  but  little  water,  in  order 
that  the  wood  may  ripen  for  winter.  Grapes,  if  grown  on  heavy  soil  will 
not  need  more  than  two  or  three  irrigations  a  year,  but  if  on  light  soil,  I 
should  recommend  at  least  five  or  six  irrigations — one,  say,  as  they  are  in 
bloom,  and  two  or  three  after  that,  as  the  ground  may  require. 

In  regard  to  the  varieties  grown  here,  I  will  give  you  a  few  of  the 
leading  ones:  Strawberries — Manchester,  Jucunda,  Wilson,  James  Vick, 
Captain  Jack,  Crescent  and  Sharpless.  Raspberries — Cuthbert,  Turner, 
Hansell,  Herstine,  Souhegan,  Gregg,  Mammoth  Cluster.  Blackberries — 
Ancient  Briton,  Early  Cluster,  Snyder,  Wilson,  Kittatinny  and  Lawton. 

The  varieties  in  italic  I  consider  good. 

Of  grapes  I  will  give  just  those  I  could  recommend  for  cultivation : 
Concord,  Hartford,  Worden,  Moore's  Early,  Champion,  Wilder,  Dela- 
ware, Salem,  Brighton,  Massasoit,  Lindley,  Lady,  Martha,  Empire  State, 
Chasselas.  These  will  do  to  tie  to. 

Currants— Red  Dutch,  Red  Cherry,  White  Dutch,  White  Grape, 
Black  Naples.  Gooseberries — I  cannot  say  anything  for  them.* 

*  NOTE— Mr.  Faurot,  being  almost  exclusively  a  grower  of  small  fruits,  does  not 
refer  to  the  larger  fruits,  like  the  apple,  pear  and  plum.  All  of  which  do  exceed- 
ingly well  in  Boulder  County.  Our  general  list  of  these  will  be  found  well  adapted 
to  culture  in  that  County. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  1 2Q 

FROM    HON.    S.    A.  WADE,    OF    DELTA    COUNTY. 
Under  date  of  August  14,  and  October  31,  1887. 

As  you  are  aware  the  Ute  Indians  were  not  dispossessed  of  this 
country  until  September  1st,  1881.  Therefore  all  our  progress  in  the 
development  of  the  fruit  interest  in  this  country  cannot  date  back  earlier 
than  the  spring  of  1882. 

The  list  of  native  or  wild  fruits  is  short,  consisting  of  the  following: 
Buffalo  berries,  two  varieties,  red  and  yellow.  These  fruits  grow  very 
luxuriantly  upon  our  river  and  creek  bottom  lands  at  an  altitude  of  4,000 
to  6,000  feet.  The  fruit  resembling  the  currant,  growing  on  scrubby  trees 
from  eight  to  twelve  feet  in  hight.  Very  prolific  and  a  sure  bearer.  Are 
improved  by  cultivation.  Ripen  about  August  15th. 

The  service,  or  Juneberry,  grows  on  the  hills  at  an  altitude  of  4,000 
to  8,000  feet ;  fruits  best  when  protected  from  the  wind  and  sun ;  is 
dwarf,  six  to  ten  feet ;  fruit  large  and  fine. 

The  wild  cherry  is  dwarf;  frequently  plants  two  feet  high  are  full  of 
fruit ;  grow  best  from  6,000  to  7,000  feet  altitude,  where  they  are  quite 
prolific. 

The  red  raspberry  of  the  mountains  is  found  upon  the  Grand  Mesa 
at  an  altitude  of  7,000  to  9,000  feet,  where  the  snow  falls  three  to  six  feet 
in  winter;  are  very  prolific  in  their  mountain  home,  but  do  no  good  in 
the  valleys  with  the  best  of  care.  They  must  have  their  snowy  covering. 

The  black  currant  found  on  some  of  the  streams  in  abundance;  bush 
six  leet  high  ;  prolific;  fruit  large  and  good. 

Strawberries  grow  7,000  to  9,000  feet  quite  plentiful ;  some  of  these 
wild  varieties  are  fair  size. 

Of  our  cultivated  fruits  this  is  but  our  sixth  year,  so  we  can  but 
report  the  progress  after  close,  careful  watching  this  growing  interest. 
Myself  being  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  fruit  interest  in  this  part  of  the 
State,  I  will  say,  that  in  the  spring  of  1882  I  brought  here  from  Illinois 
and  Missouri  quite  a  collection  of  fruits  of  different  kinds,  all  one  year 
old  ;  put  them  out  first  year  in  nursery  and  re-transplanted  them  in  the 
spring  of  1883  into  orchard,  and  now  I  have  peach  and  apricot  trees 
measuring  eighteen  inches  in  circumference  around  the  trunks  or  bodies; 
cherry  trees  fifteen  to  sixteen  and  one-half  inches;  apple  trees  twelve  to 
thirteen  inches,  with  large,  fine  heads  as  ever  grew,  I  think. 

I  have  thirty-one  varieties  in  orchard ;  over  fifty  varieties  of  apples 
9 


I3O  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

for  trial,  many  of  which  are  now  in  bearing ;  have  no  reason  to  condemn 
or  even  to  complain  of  any  variety  yet;  all  perfectly  healthy  and  no 
winter  killing,  codling  moth,  borer  or  any  other  insect  or  pest.  Pears 
have  done  fairly  well,  having  on  my  grounds  five  varieties,  and  not  a 
blighted  leaf  on  any  of  my  fruits. 

I  sold  my  blackberries  this  season  at  fifteen  cents  per  quart,  and  the 
yield  brought  me  fully  $400  per  acre. 

I  have  ten  varieties  of  cherries,  same  number  of  plums,  and  about 
the  same  of  apricots  and  peaches.  All  my  apricots  are  Russian  except 
one  variety. 

The  Morello  family  .of  cherries  are  as  hardy  as  the  oak.  All  our 
small  fruits  have  done  remarkably  well  this  season,  and  my  grapes  are  a 
wonder  to  behold,  six-ye'ar-old  vines  having  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
of  fruit  on.  I  have  some  sixteen  varieties  in  bearing;  my  first  in  favor  is 
the  Niagara  ;  next  choice  is  hard  to  make  among  the  following:  Rogers' 
No.  1  and  9,  Janesville,  Catawba,  or  Telegraph,  and  two  other  unnamed 
varieties.  The  Clint<  n  is  a  wonderful  bearer  here.  The  Salem  (No.  22) 
is  a  good  bearer,  good  grower  and  a  good  grape,  but  it  drops  from  the 
bloom  so  as  to  make  bunches  open  and  loose. 

I  am  now  trying  a  lew  California  varieties  with  good  prospects. 

We  have  a  favored  spot  here  for  fruit  growing,  no  doubt  the  best  in 
the  State.  Our  altitude  is  5,500  feet  above  the  sea  level. 

I  have  seen  growing  at  an  altitude  of  7,800  feet  the  following  fruits : 
Duchess  apples,  Whitney,  Transcendant  and  Siberian  crabs.  I  saw  these 
fruits  last  week.  The  trees  were  very  full  of  fruit,  but  the  fruit  was 
small,  especially  the  Duchess  apple,  which  were  not  larger  than  crabs. 

We  have  quite  an  extent  of  country  in  this  part  of  the  State  that 
ranges  from  6,000  to  8,000  feet  altitude,  that  in  time  will  be  utilized  for 
fruit  growing  quite  extensively  in  the  near  future,  especially  for  small 
fruits.  It  is  high  table-land  with  a  good  deal  of  timber  and  grasses, 
where  the  snow  falls  about  three  feet  in  winter  and  rains  often  during  the 
summer  season,  with  a  climate  much  like  a  portion  of  Michigan. 

There  is  one  thing  I  can  note  as  very  peculiar  in  the  fruit  trees  on 
this  Western  or  Pacific  Slope:  Our  trees  may  make  a  wonderful  growth 
of  wood  during  the  summer  and  will  bud  profusely  at  the  same  time,  and 
if  a  late  frost  should  happen  to  come  in  April  or  early  in  May  (which  we 
have  never  had)  and  kill  off  our  grape  crop,  by  giving  the  vineyard  a 
thorough  irrigation  for  about  three  days  the  vines  will  re-set  and  make  a 


CORRESPONDENCE.  13! 

fair  crop ;  in  fact  we  have  to  guard  against  this  second  growth  continu- 
ously throughout  the  fruiting  season. 

It  is  very  difficult  for  you  to  overestimate  the  natural  fruit  advan- 
tages of  this  part  af  the  State. 

In  letter  of  October  31st,  he  says  : 

I  have  two  distinct  classes  of  soil  on  my  farm.  The  first  bottom  land 
is  sandy  loam,  with  four  to  six  feet  of  clay  sub-soil.  This  is  my  best  grape, 
peach  and  small  fruit  lands,  which  I  irrigate  from  three  to  six  times  dur- 
ing the  growing  season,  except  strawberries,  which  I  keep  quite  moist.  I 
irrigate  no  fruit  on  this  land,  except  the  strawberries,  after  September  1st. 
"We  usually  get  rains  in  the  fall  sufficient  for  all  fruits. 

My  second  bottom  land  is  of  the  black  loam,  with  quite  a  mixture  of 
the  adobe.  This  land  is  strong  and  deep  soil.  I  consider  it  my  best 
apple  and  pear  land.  I  have  twenty-five  acres  in  this  fruit  on  this  land. 

I  raise  corn,  potatoes  and  vines  among  my  trees,  and  only  irrigate 
sufficient  to  promote  a  good,  healthy  growth  to  my  corn,  and  find  it  about 
right  for  my  trees.  I  turn  on  the  water  about  once  a  week  for  a  day  and 
night,  as  a  general  thing,  through  the  season,  and  our  corn  matures  about 
September  1st  to  10th,  when  I  shut  off  all  irrigation  water.  After  that  our 
fall  rains  take  care  of  the  fruits,  and  they  ripen  their  wood  in  excellent 
shape  for  the  winter.  We  lay  nothing  down  for  winter  except  the  tender 
California  grapes. 

Peaches  and  apricots  begin  bearing  the  second  year  after  budding. 
Many  varieties  of  apples  bear  at  three  and  four  years  from  graft.  Especi- 
ally is  this  the  case  with  the  Kussians.  Many  of  the  Americans  bear  at 
four  and  five  years.  Cherries  and  plums  bear  very  early  with  us.  It  is 
is  not  unfrequent  to  see  a  two-year-old  cherry  tree  full  of  fruit. 

My  choice  of  fruits  for  profit  here  is  the  grape.  The  of  yield  my  five- 
year-old  vines  this  year  was  enormous. 

FROM    GEN.    R.    A.    CAMERON,    CANON    CITY,    FREMONT     COUNTY. 

At  Canon  City  the  water  of  the  Arkansas  does  not  seem  to  be  impreg- 
nated with  much  mineral  matter,  which,  like  rivers,  notably  the  Rio 
Grande  in  New  Mexico,  enriches  the  soil  On  the  South  side  of  the  river, 
where  the  soil  is  composed  chiefly  of  decomposed  red  and  white  sand- 
stone, irrigation  practiced  once  or  even  twice  a  week  in  the  warm  and  dry 
seasons  seems  to  act  like  so  much  refreshing  rain.  On  the  North  side  of 
the  river,  however,  where  the  soil  is  composed  largely  of  decomposed 


132  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

shale  and  lime  rock,  a  rich  and  heavy  adobe,  irrigation  has  to  he  prac- 
ticed with  great  care,  and  is  best  conducted  in  the  evening  or  on  cloudy 
days,  which  prevents  the  scalding. of  trees.  A  good  soaking  once  in  three* 
weeks  is  beneficial  and  acceptable  to  trees,  bushes  and  vines,  as  well  as  to 
vegetables.  Some  of  the  latter,  however,  requiring  water  oftener. 

While  some,  or  a  large  variety  of  grapes,  such  as  the  Elvira  and  Sa- 
lem, bear  irrigation  well,  the  Concord,  Pocklington,  and  others  of  the 
Labrusca  family,  do  not  relish  much  water.  Whether  it  is  the  water 
itself,  or  the  " alkali"  it  develops  and  brings  to  the  surface,  I  do  not 
know.  So  strongly  has  this  dislike  of  irrigation  impressed  many  in  regard  to 
the  Concord,  that  Dr.  Craven,  a  leading  horticulturist  here,  only  waters 
his  Concord  vines  in  the  spring  and  fall,  and  yet  he  has  luxuriant  crops 
of  most  excellent  grapes.* 

FROM    EX-PRESIDENT   J.    S.    MC  CLELLAND,     OF   THE    NORTHERN 
COLORADO    HORTICULTURAL    SOCIETY,    LARIMER    COUNTY. 

I  use  a  great  deal  of  water  during  the  fruiting  season.  Water  straw- 
berries after  each  picking,  and  never  allow  them  to  get  dry.  Newly- 
planted  trees  I  never  allow  to  get  dry.  My  oldest  orchards  I  have  not 
irrigated  this  year,  but  will  do  so  this  month  (October)  .f 

The  best  fruits  ?     Well,  here  they  are : 

Apples — Summer — Oldenburg,  Tetofsky,  Bed  June,  Fall,  Wealthy 
and  Famous.  Winter— Ben  Davis,  Willow  Twig  and  Golden  Kusset. 

Plums — Miner  and  Weaver.  The  Miner  is  a  glorious  plum,  and  re- 
markably hardy.  Beats  everything  else  with  me. 

Grapes — Concord,  Worden,  Champion  and  Sweet  Water,  especially 
the  latter,  do  best  with  me.  Am  going  to  make  a  success  of  grapes. 

Gooseberries — Houghton. 

Currants — White  Grape,  Cherry  and  Red  Dutch. 

Strawberries — Crescent,  Manchester  and  Chas.  Downing. 

Blackberries — Wilson  and  Snyder. 

Raspberries — Red — Turner  and  Cuthbert.  Slack — Mammoth  Cluster 
and  Gregg. 


*NOTE— Fremont  County  is  one  of  the  pioneer  fruit  growing  Counties  of  Colorado. 
The  oldest  commercial  orchard  of  the  State,  that  of  Jesse  Frazier,  is  located  here, 
which  in  1886  yielded  10,000  bushels  of  apples. 

f  NOTE.— Mr.  McClelland's  soil  is  a  clayey  loam. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  133 

FROM  REV.  S.  W.  DE  BUSK,  OF  LAS  ANIMAS  COUNTY. 

In  the  last  volume  of  our  State  Horticultural  Report  you  will  find  an 
article  entitled  "The  Beginnings  in  Las  Animas  County,"  which  gives  a 
correct  statement  of  our  first  efforts  in  this  County.  My  own  orchard  the 
past  season  (1887)  yielded  eighty  bushels  of  Ben  Davis,  Rawles  Janet, 
Wine  Sap,  Missouri  Pippin,  Tetofsky,  Duchess,  Cooper's  Early  White, 
Fall  Spitzenburg,  Wealthy  and  Hyslop.  Crabs  did  well  with  me  this 
year.  My  first  trees  were  set  in  the  year  1881.  Large  holes  were  dug, 
and  a  heap  of  bones  placed  in  each  hole.  Trees  set  a  rod  apart,  I  find, 
will  prove  to  be  too  close  soon.  The  limbs  of  the  Ben  Davis  trees  promise 
to  touch  across  the  space  between  the  rows  in  three  years  longer. 

One  Missouri  Pippin  tree,  set  three  years  ago  last  April,  ripened  one 
hundred  apples  five  years  from  graft.  One  Jonathan  tree,  same  age 
ripened  eighty  apples;  one  Ben  Davis  tree,  same  age,  ripened  seventy-five 
apples  remarkable  for  fine  size  and  color.  So  much  for  early  bearing. 

My  trees  are  on  a  hill-side,  sloping  to  the  North.  Soil,  a  clay  loam, 
which  is  usual  on  our  prairies.  At  two  points  leads  of  slate  crop  out  on 
knolls.  This  upland  needs  irrigating  twice  as  often  as  the  compact  loam 
or  adobe  of  my  low  bottom. 

In  starting  my  trees,  six  years  ago,  the  land  was  kept  in  hoed  crop; 
part  being  used  for  the  vegetable  garden,  and  the  other  part  cultivated  in 
beans,  turnips,  and  sometimes  corn. 

The  spots*  irrigated  oftenest  gave  best  results.  Where  the  cabbage 
and  tomato  patch  was,  and  the  water  ran  three  to  five  times  a  week,  trees 
grew  most  rapidly,  bore  earliest,  and  to-day  are  the  favorites  in  the  or- 
chard. My  hill-side  was  rough,  having  two  or  three  gullies  across  it, 
when  I  began  to  cultivate  it.  In  irrigating  this  uneven  land,  a  few  trees, 
which  stood  in  low  places,  received  twice  Uie  water  the  others  had. 
Those  getting  a  superabundance  of  water  on  this  well-drained  soil  are,  in 
every  way,  the  best  trees.  It  is  well  undei stood,  here  in  my  family,  that 
on  this  hill-side  of  clay  loam,  underlaid  by  slate,  there  is  no  danger  of 
irrigating  too  much  for  apples,  pears,  raspberries,  strawberries,  currants 
and  gooseberries,  even  if  that  irrigation  be  twice  a  week  from  June  1st 
to  September  1st,  seasons  of  heavy  rains  excepted,  of  course. 

The  above  is  the  sum  of  my  experience  for  five  years. 

The  past  summer,  matters  were  quite  different  with  me.     The  floods 


134  HORTICULTURE  BY  IRRIGATON. 

of  June  practically  destroyed  my  irrigating  ditch.  This  hill-side  orchard, 
having  been  well  irrigated  once  in  May,  was  exposed  to  the  fierce  heat  of 
July  and  August  without  irrigation.  The  half  and  one-third  grown 
apples  ceased  to  grow,  and  began  to  shrivel  up  on  the  trees.  Water  was 
obtained  to  give  all  a  good  soaking  once  late  in  August.  The  trees  re- 
vived in  a  few  days.  The  fruit  resumed  its  growth,  and,  with  few  excep- 
tions, matured  well,  though  later  than  usual.  Had  not  the  trees  been  well 
established  they  must  have  died. 

Another  incident  on  this  well-drained  upland,  which  requires  fre- 
quent irrigation,  teaches  me  that  trees  might  succeed  almost  without  irri- 
gation, and  I  will  give  this^or  the  benefit  of  the  rain-belt  farmers,  gome 
hundred  of  whom  we  have  in  Eastern  Las  Animas  County. 

In  my  early  experience,  I  made  the  mistake  of  setting  largely  of  the 
Transcendant  crab,  a  variety  which  is  nearly  useless  to  me,  because  the 
buds  push  out  early  in  the  spring,  and  have  four  years  in  succession  been 
nipped  by  frost. 

To  test  to  my  satisfaction  the  theory  of  mulching  to  make  a  tree 
bloom  late,  I  placed  a  wagon  load  of  old,  thoroughly-rotted  manure  about 
the  roots  of  three  large  crab  trees,  leaving  other  trees  unmulched.  The 
mulch  was  applied  when  the  ground  was  frozen  and  some  snow  was  on. 
The  mulch  utterly  failed  to  retard  the  blooming.  It  did  seem  to  me  the 
mulched  trees  bloomed  earlier  than  the  others.  The  manure  used  for 
mulch  couid  not  have  heated,  for  it  had  lain  out-doors  two  years,  some  of 
it  even  longer,  before  being  used.  But  when  the  trees  were  exposed  to  a 
torrid  summer,  without  any  irrigation,  those  mulched  flourished  with 
surprising  vigor.  I  strongly  suspect,  now,  if  one  could  spare  a  heavy 
wagon-load  of  such  mulch  to  each  tree,  that  our  rain  and  snow  fall  might 
give  sufficient  moisture  for  good  results. 

Many  ask  me,  how  often  to  irrigate?  So  much  depends  upon  the 
soil,  location,  drainage,  etc., 'that  I  can  give  no  rule.  Have  often  said 
this,  that  a  corn  field  will  always  indicate,  to  the  experienced  farmer, 
when  water  should  be  applied;  and  likewise,  an  orchard,  young  or  old, 
will  make  its  wants  known  to  the  horticulturist  who  is  attentive  and  quick 
to  comprehend  the  language  of  his  trees.  My  trees  young,  or  old,  plead 
piteously  for  water  when  they  grow  too  dry. 

Of  course,  I  leave  off  irrigation  in  the  fall — usually  September  15th 
here— to  allow  the  wood  to  mature  for  winter. 


CORRESPONDENCE.  135 

HORTICULTURE    IN    MONTROSE   AND    OURAY    COUNTIES. 
BY  A.  D.  FAIRBANKS,  MONTROSE. 

Among  the  first  to  plant  fruit  trees  and  small  fruits  in  Montrose 
County  were  the  following  named  persons:  Gustavus  Frost,  Boss  Broth- 
ers, Young  Brothers,  Eldridge  Brothers,  David  Markley,  O.  D.  Loutsen- 
heizer.  Among  the  first  to  plant  fruit  trees  and  small  fruits  in  Ouray 
County  were  the.  following  named  persons:  R.  H.  Higgins,  J.  Smith  and 
Preston  Hotchkiss. 

From  four  to  five  years  is  the  extent  of  time  in  which  fruit  of  any 
kind  has  been  cultivated  in  either  of  the  above  Counties,  with  possibly  one 
exception.  K.  H.  Higgins,  who  located  nine  or  ten  years  ago  within  four 
miles  of  Ouray  City,  and  has,  for  nearly  the  entire  time,  grown  small 
fruits  of  some  kinds  with  marvelous  success.  The  hard}'  varieties  of 
raspberries  and  blackberries  he  has  propagated  successfully,  and  both 
have  fr-uited  heavily  each  year.  Currants  and  gooseberries  have  also 
thriven  well  with  him,  as  have  also  strawberries.  He  is  located  at  an 
altitude  of  7,000  feet. 

Apples,  cherries,  plums  and  pears  are  not  grown  very  extensively  in 
Ouray  County. 

At  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  near  Montrose,  a  few  families  have 
planted  trees  with  varying  results.  A  Mr.  Smith  has  raised  apples  and 
pears,  also  grapes,  at  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet  and  more,  and  on  the  river 
bottom,  Preston  Hotchkiss,  two  miles  below,  on  the  Uncompahgre,  has  a 
fine  start  in  all  varieties  of  fruit  that  can  be  grown  in  the  best  parts  of 
the  East.  The  showing,  for  this  time,  is  wonderful  in  the  growth,  vigor- 
ous appearance,  and  all  that  portends  to  fruit  culture. 

The  soil  is  of  a  dark  brown  color  naturally,  and  by  cultivation  turns 
to  a  black,  loamy  appearance. 

The  Eldridge  Brothers,  still  lower  down  the  river  and  in  Montrose 
County,  have  succeeded  commendably. 

O.  D.  Loutsenheizer,  half  a  mile  East  of  the  town  of  Montrose,  and  on 
what  may  be  called  a  genuine  adobe  ranch,  has,  after  several  fruitless 
trials  on  a  large  scale,  succeeded  in  a  small  way  in  fruit  raising. 

All  small  fruits  do  well  on  this  adobe,  and  apples,  pears,  apricots  and 
plums  thrive  better  on  this  kind  of  soil,  when  it  is  properly  managed, 
than  on  the  river  bottom,  as  the  latter,  after  two  or  three  years,  proves  too 


136  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

wet  for  the  roots  which  have  penetrated  the  earth  downwards,  in  that 
time  three  or  four  feet. 

Mr.  Loutsenheizer  is  very  enthusiastic  over  fruit  culture  in  this 
valley,  especially  on  the  adobe. 

The  Koss  Brothers,  Young  Brothers  and  Gus  Frost  have  severally 
demonstrated  that  all  moderately  hardy  varieties  of  apples,  plums,  pears 
and  even  peaches  at  an  altitude  of  5,500  feet  can  be  successfully  grown. 
The  quality  of  fruit  in  this  valley  is  remarkable.  Demonstration  has 
settled  grape  culture,  and  small  fruits  of  all  kinds  and  varieties;  and  we 
are  sure  that  anything  that  can  be  grown  in  the  Middle  States  can  be 
grown  here. 

Thus  far  all  kinds  of  fruit  have  been  very  free  from  insects  or  any  of 
those  afflictions  so  common  in  the  East. 

The  greatest  extremes  in  Montrose  County,  on  an  average  of  five 
years,  is  from  fifteen  degrees  below  zero  to  ninety  degrees  above. 

The  character  of  the  soil  is  variable.  There  is  adobe,  red  gravelly  soil 
underlaid  from  three  to  five  feet  below  the  surface  with  a  solid  cement  of 
pebbles  and  clay,  or  some  similar  formation,  perhaps  by  an  admixture 
with  the  soil  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  gypsum. 

Irrigation  soon  softens  this  underlying  stratum  and  renders  this  kind 
of  land,  which  is  confined  mostly  to  the  mesas,  very  receptive,  and  thus 
seepage  is  very  rapid  and  the  necessity  of  irrigation  more  frequent  than 
on  the  river  bottom,  where  the  soil  is  constantly  under-moistened  by 
seepage  from  the  river. 

The  adobe,  which  is  generally  the  second  bottom,  and  is  in  depth 
from  ten  to  thirty  feet,  when  once  well  soaked  with  water  to  the  depth  of 
from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet,  is  sufficiently  irrigated,  as  a  rule,  by  two 
or  three  times  in  a  season  for  small  grains ;  while  the  mesa  soil  as  a  rule 
needs  water  every  two  weeks,  in  some  localities  oftener.  If  small  grains 
are  planted  near  the  surface  in  the  adobe  ground  it  will  need  water  often, 
as  the  hot  sun  bakes  rapidly  the  top  of  the  ground  in  the  summer 
months.  If  there  is  any  favor  to  special  varieties,  there  has  not  been  suf- 
ficient time  to  demonstrate  it  in  Montrose  County. 

KOUTT,  KOUTT  COUNTY,  COLO.,  November  8th,  1887. 
Looking  towards  fruit  culture  in  this  part  of  the  State,  the  part  that 
I  shall  describe  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  great  County  in  which  I  live. 
One  man  I  believe  planted  out  a  few  trees  last  spring  on  the  river  bottom, 


CORRESPONDENCE.  137 

and  I  believe  they  did  very  well  until  they  were  eaten  up  by  the  cattle. 

Judging  from  the  altitudes  by  Hayden  and  his  geological  survey,  our 
best  farming  lands  have  an  altitude  of  from  6,300  to  6,500  feet  above  the 
sea. 

The  sage  land  is  the  best,  and  is  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  and  very  rich, 
and  where  the  sage  gets  a  sufficiency  of  water  it  grows  to  a  great  size,  and 
often  reaches  the  higlit  of  six  or  seven  feet.  The  grease-wood  lands  are 
adobe,  and  are  not  considered  good  farming  lands. 

There  are  but  few  kinds  of  native  fruit  growing  in  this  vicinity 
—  the  choke-cherry,  sarvis  berry,  mountain  raspberry  and  currant.  L 
have  seen  cherries  that  grew  at  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet  that  were  both 
large  and  well  flavored. 

The  mercury  was  not  lower  than  twenty  below  zero  last  winter,  and 
not  very  long  spells  of  cold  weather  at  any  one  time,  and  not  higher  than 
one  hundred  during  the  hottest  day  of  summer. 

I  can  give  you  a  better  idea  of  what  will  succeed  by  giving  you.  a  few 
facts  of  my  own  personal  experience  in  my  vegetable  garden.  Sweet 
corn  matured  so  as  to  make  good  seed ;  also  beans.  I  planted  out  a  few 
tomato  plants  the  first  of  July  that  ripened  a  few  tomatoes.  My  water- 
melons did  not  succeed  for  lack  of  irrigation  during  the  Indian  troubles, 
when  we  had  to  leave  our  homes  and  seek  safety  in  forting  up  our  place. 
Our  place  is  only  a  half-mile  north  of  the  trail  taken  by  the  Indians  at 
the  time  the  Meeker  women  were  taken  into  captivity. 

The  hills  that  have  timber  on  are  very  poor  and  rocky,  producing 
but  low,  scrubby  cedar,  that  seldom  if  ever  gets  long  enough  for  two  fence 
posts.  The  canons  in  the  mountains,  and  sometimes  nearly  to  the  tops  of 
the  mountains,  are  covered  with  scrub  oak  and  quaking  asp,  some  box 
elder  and  pinon  pine. 

The  general  lay  of  the  country  is  very  hilly  and  uneven  and  cut  up 
with  gullies  and  wash-outs,  so  that  travel  on  horseback  is  sometimes 
difficult.  The  gullies  and  wash-outs  would  indicate  heavy  rains,  and  yet 
I  have  not  seen  anyone  that  has  seen  a  hard  rain  since  the  country  has 
been  settled.  Several  persons  here,  at  Axial,  and  at  Yampa,  have  been 
getting  fruit  trees 

I  should  be  much  pleased  to  see  a  more  general  desire  to  improve 
the  country  by  setting  and  growing  fruits  of  such  kinds  as  would  succeed, 
and  I  think  many  kinds  would  do  well  here.  Only  eighty  miles  to  the 
West  of  us,  down  at  Ashley,  I  am  told  they  raise  considerable  fruit. 


138  HORTICULTURE    BY    IRRIGATION. 

And  with  money  and  energy  I  think  this  would  become  a  fruit-growing 
country.  ELISHA  BENNETT. 

APPLES    FOR    WELD    COUNTY. 
.BY  O.  H.  GALLUP,  ESQ.,  GREELEY,  COLORADO. 

The  Wealthy,  Gideon,  and  Excelsior  of  the  Minnesota  kinds  have 
fruited  on  my  place,  but  with  me  the  Wealthy  lacks  in  hardiness  a  little 
and  is  a  shy  bearer ;  the  Excelsior  is  also  slow  to  fruit.  I  have  trees  that 
are  of  good  size,  but  have  never  had  but  three  or  four  apples  form 
thereon.  The  Gideon  bears  early  and  abundantly  and  is  UA  No.  1." 

The  Eussian  Yellow  Transparent  is  the  only  foreign  apple  I  have, 
fruited,  and  I  think  the  best  apple  on  my  grounds. 

The  Oldenburg  seems  to  be  hardy  and  productive.  Gideon's  Flor- 
ence (crab)  will  fruit  the  earliest  and  fullest  and  dodge  the  late  spring 
frosts  better  than  any  other  apple  I  have,  and  for  cooking,  it  almost 
equals  a  good  standard.  I  have  growing,  but  not  fruiting  yet,  Mann,  and 
the  Haas,  that  are  promising  trees.  I  find  that  trees  on  crab  roots  stand 
much  better  than  those  grafted  on  common  stock. 

As  to  soil  best  adapted  for  apples,  my  trees  here  in  town  are  on  a 
stony  soil ;  on  my  old  farm  it  is  a  coarse,  sandy  soil ;  on  my  West  farm 
the  soil  is  finer  sand,  with  a  little  adobe  added,  and  on  this  the  trees  seem 
to  do  best  in  their  growth,  and  also  fruit  more  freely. 

As  to  frequency  of  irrigating,  this  will  depend  on  the  soil,  but  I  am 
inclined  to  the  opinion  that  after  trees  are  well  established,  (say  after  the 
first  year,)  they  need  less  water  than  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  giving 
them.  A  good,  thorough  wetting  about  once  a  month  I  think  about 
right  for  established  trees. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

NUMBER    OF    SEEDS   TO   THE    POUND,    BY   ACTUAL   COUNT. 
FOREST  TREES. 

NO.  IN 
COMMON  NAME.  BOTANICAL  NAME.  POUND. 

White  Birch w.Betula  Alba 500,000 

American  Mountain  Ash Pyrus  Americana 108,327 

American  White  Elm Ulmus  Americana 92,352 

Red  Elm Ulmus  Fulva 54,359 

Black  Locust Kobinia  Pseudacacia 28,992 

•Green  Ash Fraxinus  Viridis 22,056 

Scarlet  Maple Acer  Rubra 22,464 

White  Pine Pinus  Strobus 20,540 

Ailanthus Ailanthus  Glandulosa 20,161 

Hardy  Catalpa Catalpa  Speciosa 19,776 

Box  Elder Acer  Negundo 14,784 

Silver  Fir Abies  Pectinala 12,000 

Osage  Orange Maculara  Aurantiaca 10,656 

American  White  Ash Fraxinus  Americana ...   ..    9,858 

Rock  Elm Ulmus  Racemosa 8,352 

Red  Cedar Juniperus  Virginiafia 8,321 

Berberry Berberis  Canadensis 8,183 

Sugar  Maple Acer  Saccharinum 7,488 

Norway  Maple Acer  Platanoides _    7,231 

American  Basswood Tilia  Americana 6,337 

Black  Ash .Fraxinus  Sambucifolia 5,629 

Black  Cherry Prunus  Serotina 4,311 

Honey  Locust Gledilschia  Friaeanthos 2,496 

Silver  Leaf  Maple Acer  Dascycarpum 2,421 

American  Sweet  Chestnut Castanea  Vesca 90 

Hickory  (Shell  Bark) Carya  Alba 78 

American  Horse  Chestnut JEsculus  Glabra 36 

Black  Walnut Juglaus  Nigra 25 

Butternut Juglaus  Ciuerea 15 

FRUIT  TREES. 

About 

Apple 12,000 

Cherry  Pits 1,000 

Peach 200 

Pear 15,000 

Plum 600 

Quince 15,000 

Mulberry  (fruit  bearing) 200,000 


VEGETABLE    AND    GRASS    SEED    TABLE. 
(From  Henry  Lee's  Catalogue.) 

AVERAGE    QUANTITY    OF   SEED   SOWN    TO   AN   ACRE. 


IM   DRILLS. 

Dwarf  Beans                          la  to    ooihs 

Rutabaga  

1  to  1%  Ibs 

Spinach  

10  to    12  Ibs 

Salsify 

10  to    12  Ibs 

Early  Peas  
Marrowfat  Peas 

75  to    90  Ibs 
70  to    80  Ibs 

Turnips 

1    tr»   IV  IHc 

Tomatoes  to  transplant  %  Ib 

IN  HILLS. 

Corn  ..    8  to    in  ihs 

Beets 

4  to      5  Ibs 

Mangel-Wurzei  
Carrots 

6  to      8  Ibs 

2  to      3  Ibs 

Onions 

4  to      5  Ibs 

Cucumbers 

1  to  1%  Ibs 

20  to    30  Ibs 

Musk-Melon 
Water-Melon 
Pumpkins 

2  to      3  Ibs 

Onion  sets 

300  to  350  Ibs 

3  to     4  Ibs 

Parsnip  
Radish  

4  to      5  Ibs 

6  to      8  Ibs 

2  to      3  Ibs 

Squash  
>R  A   GIVEN 
Pepper  

2  to      3  Ibs 
NUMBER   OF   PLANTS. 
1  oz  to  I,0r0  nlants 

QUANTITY  OF 

Asparagus  
Cabbage 

SEEDS   REQUIRED   F< 

....lozto     500  plants 
1  oz  to  2  000  plants 

Tomato  
Thyme 

1  oz  to  1,500  plants 
1  oz  to  5  000  plants 

Cauliflower  
Celery.... 

....1  oz  to  2,000  plants 
.    1  oz  to  3  000  plants 

Tobacco  
Sage 

1  oz  to  5.000  r-i-    'S 
1  oz  t.^  1  Lu>,  piants 

Leek..  

1  oz  to  1  500  plants 

Endive  
Egg  Plant  

....1  oz  to  3,000  plants 
1  oz  to  1  000  plants 

If    »      Of"  plants 

Marjoram  
Rhubarb  

1  OZ  tO  l.-'U'l  '  ] 

lozto     500plants 

Lettuce  

....1  oz  to  3,000  plants 

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